development of political system and parties, emergence of liberal party and development of conservatives

main feature of mid-victorian government

consolidation of parliamentary government

parliamentary government

situation where executive power was possessed by ministers who, as members of the Cabinet, were responsible for Parliament

Although it was technically the monarch who appointed the Government, in reality it was parliament who provided ministers with the authority to govern and whose assent was essential to a measure becoming law

disintegration of political parties in 1850s

non-Conservative majority wasnt stable in composition, resulting in falls of governments in 1852, 1855, 1858, and 1866.

non-Conservative majority was fragmented around very different groups of politicians – aristocratic Whigs, middle class non-conformist Radicals, elitist Peelites, the Irish Brigade.

proof of lack of party in govs 1850s

in the parliament of 1852-57, 25 Commons amendments were carried against the government; in 1859-65, 27 such amendments were carried.

By contrast between 1874 and 1880 only one such amendment was carried.

lack of organisation of political parties 1850s

no centralised bureaucracies, no mass membership, little constituency organisation, no expectation that all MPs would follow an agreed line, local elections were often decided by local loyalties and influences and the voters did not divide along simple Conservative/Liberal lines

re-establishment of 2 party politics

happened in 1868

parties as apparent in 1850s

parties did function as largely cohesive associations of like-minded MPs who tended to vote together eg Conservatives voted steadily on party lines through the 1850s and 1860s even though they rarely got power as a result

parties as organised in 1850s

Both Conservatives and Liberals took steps to strengthen organisation during the 1850s

growing provincial press taking an interest in parliamentary affairs, doctrine that Parliament was an autonomous body independent of the people became harder and harder to sustain

proof of party system in 1850s

was a large degree of consensus: the moderates on both sides of the House tending to unite against radicals of either the left or right to oversee a moderate progressive consensus

e.g. in 1846 the Whigs helped vote through corn-law repeal against the Protectionist Tories; in the period 1859-65 the Conservatives supported Palmerston against more radical Liberals who wanted more political reform

5 groups in parliament 1846

the whigs, protectionist conservatives, peelites, radicals and Irish MPs.

peelites numbers

• Followers of Robert Peel in 1845-6.

• Numbered around 100 – 1/3 of the conservative party. Their support was necessary for any government hoping to form a majority.

peelite key members

Contained most of the leaders of the party eg Aberdeen, Gladstone. Stronger in ability than number – their ranks included many of the best executive politicians of their day and their departure left the tories deficient in debating and governing competence.

peelite beliefs

Subscribed to Peel’s vision of a reformist tory party, embraced free trade, executive efficiency and pacific foreign policy, were broadly liberal in their politics since reformers and modernisers who embraced free trade.

Had little in common with the back bench country tradition of the tory party which made them the natural allies of the whigs.

stood for executive competence – not bound to a conventional party affiliation and prided themselves on the peelite tradition of pragmatic government in the national interest rather than party interest.

issue with peelites

it was increasingly impossible to conduct the government without party backing and it was this that the Peelites lacked – and to an ever greater degree as their numbers ebbed away in the 1850s.

aloof sense of superiority radiated by the Peelites alienated other MPs and evoked resentment and this made it hard for the Peelites to form stable coalition governments.

conservatives leader

the Earl of Derby, a former moderate whig who had joined Peel in the 1830s. Was a great landowner in Lancashire, well educated, superb and experienced debater.

derby issues as leader

was rather detached and had other passions, was also plagued by gout which often incapacitated him, his approach to leadership was passive and quiet – effectively hoping to capitalise on Whig divisions.

conservative beliefs/supporters

Mainly representatives of farming and country interests

were associated with Protectionism, a liability in that argument for Corn Law repeal been won and free trade was the dominant ideology of the day. The Conservatives soon abandoned support for the Corn Laws and by the 1850s were a free trade party. But suspicion of a lack of commitment to free trade remained.

conservative aims

Needed to recover the peelite tradition of moderate reform – must pose as responsible politicians who could be relied upon to carry out necessary reform while avoiding threats to the constitution, Church of England and property. This would win back middle class support and allegiance of the peelites.

conservatives issues numbers

lost members and the party organiser Bonham

Although the largest single-party had no absolute majority, needed allies if they were to form a government but most other parliamentary groups defined themselves against the Conservatives

conservative issues politicians

lacked political and debating talent. Derby was a great debater but he was in the House of Lords, Benjamin Disraei main political force in the Commons

But Disraeli was not trusted/liked: begun life as a Radical, not a country gentleman, not rich, Jew by birth.

whig wins from 1846

• Appeared great gainers from Peel’s conservative implosion – could recover their claim to be the custodians of moderate, rational reform, and had a track record as supporters of parliamentary and social reform and support for corn law repeal.

• When Peel fell from power it was prominent whig Lord John Russell who became prime minister.

whigs issue aristocrats

The Whigs remained an alliance of aristocratic families. They had failed to reach out to the rising middle class in terms of the higher levels of the party.

eg Russell’s Cabinet of 21 included 12 aristocrats. The Chancellor of the Exchequer, Wood, was Russell’s brother-in-law. They were a landed aristocratic elite and this was less and less typical of developing Victorian society.

whigs issue minority and divisions

The Whigs could only govern in alliance with Radicals, Irish, and Liberals, so were under pressure from forces they did not really sympathise with

eg Radicals wanted parliamentary reform but divisive issue for whigs as some such as russell were willing to re-visit the issue but other Whigs saw the 1832 settlement as final and did not favour more political reform, divided on other issues such as religious reform and Irish policy

whigs issue politicians

The Whigs were failing to produce talented politicians, Wood was an ineffective Chancellor of the Exchequer, and while Russell was a dynamic personality, he was also erratic and alienated other politicians and failed to provide strong or assured leadership

weakened by the rivalry between Russell and Palmerston

radicals numbers

In 1852 there were 30 self-declared radical MPs in parliament, and a further 25 who called themselves liberals rather than whigs. Regularly voted against the whig government.

radicals beliefs reform

Wanted further parliamentary reform, were dissatisfied with the 1832 reform act, wanted further moves to widen the franchise to include working class voters

eg in 1848 Joseph Hume moved a motion calling for household suffrage, triennial parliaments, secret ballot and equal electoral districts. This Little Charter was defeated 84 votes to 351, so support for further reform was still limited in the Commons but was an issue that never disappeared.

radicals beliefs fiscal

Wanted to reduce government spending and taxation, thought government in Britain was corrupt and inefficient due to the grip on power of the aristocratic elite and hold must be broken if there was to be sustained economic growth, trade expansion, prosperity and global peace.

A key step in this process was retrenchment

radical beliefs retrenchment

cutting government spending and taxes.

Government spending was wasteful and used to subside the aristocracy and promote damaging and costly wars. To this end Cobden proposed in his National Budget of 1848 to cut government spending by 20% (mainly but cuts to the army and navy) and use this saving for further tariff cuts and the abolition of income tax.

radicals beliefs religion

Wanted the disestablishment of the Church of England. Most Radicals were from non-conformist backgrounds and were not members of the Church of England, resented the established authority of the Church and its continuing hold on education, opposed the levying of Church Rates to pay for the Church. The Church of England was seen as a bastion of aristocratic patronage and power.

irish mps numbers

• Called themselves the Irish Brigade – were about 15 mainly Catholic Irish MPs.

irish mps beliefs

Tried to pursue measures benefiting Ireland, mainly a reform of Irish land law.

irish mps supported

Tended to vote with the Whigs who were seen as more receptive to Irish grievances than the Conservatives, who were more closely associated with the Church of England and whose leader, Lord Derby, was a notable defender of the Church of England in Ireland and who had resigned from the Whig government of 1832 in opposition to concessions to the Irish.

lord palmerston

supporter of liberal national movements in Europe, was a powerful personality and a great parliamentary speaker and commanded a group of MPs, along with Russell he dominated the Whig party, though he was never really a Whig.

lord palmerston appeal

His appeal was widespread: as a former Tory who opposed parliamentary reform, he enjoyed support from the Conservatives; as a liberal foreign secretary, supporter of Catholic Emancipation, and pro-free trader he had support of Liberals.

proof of palmerston strength

His support for a government was a crucial element of strength: when Russell sacked him in 1851 Russell fell from power shortly afterwards as Palmerston swung the votes of his supporters against Russell.

beginning of liberal party

meeting of anti-Conservative forces at the Willis’s Rooms in St James in 1859

wills’s room meeting

representatives of the Whigs, Liberals, Radicals and Peelites agreed to join together to form a single party called the Liberal Party under the leadership of Palmerston and Russell.

Whoever the Queen should call upon to form a government, the other pledged to serve under them. Thus united the four groups were able to vote down the minority Conservative government and in June 1859 the Queen invited Palmerston to form a government

why gladstone accepted chancellor of exchequer position

• was itching to get back into power. He had been out of office for four years. Having failed to re-join the Tories, this was his last chance of power for the foreseeable future and he had to take it if he was to be Chancellor and realise his financial plans.

• had become a supporter of Italian independence from Austria. The Whigs and Liberals also supported this, whereas the Tories favoured Austria.

liberal party beliefs 1859

laissez-faire, self-help, influenced by the great political philosophers of the day such as John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, liberty and freedom of the individual, religious toleration, free trade, principle of parliamentary government within a limited democracy, but accepted that an overhaul of the parliamentary system was necessary to reflect the changes in the distribution and wealth of the population due to IR

liberal party as a coalition

was made up of disparate groups. They had different religious beliefs, from different social classes, attitude to foreign policy and empire, and attitudes to political reform.

For example, the Peelites were liberal in economic policy, but less liberal politically and did not attach important to electoral change, believing more in efficient government in the national interest than democratic government.

issue with liberals being coalition

always had a tendency towards discord and dissolution. The agendas and viewpoints of those making up Liberal governments varied greatly and this tended to mean that the leaders fell foul of their own supporters.

Every Liberal government from 1834 to 1886 (with the exception of Palmerston’s 1859-65 government) fell due to a break down in unity among its own members.

occupations of the 456 liberal MPs sitting between 1859 and 1874 for English constituencies

Landowners – 198

• Lawyers – 84

• Big businessmen - 74

why conservatives needed to be developed

• Party organisation had been in disarray since the split with the Peelites. Improved organisation would help maintain the Conservatives as a political force and was necessary if the vote were to maximised in elections.

• The Tory rank and file were notoriously difficult to control as most owed their seats to local connections – not the party leadership. By tightening organisation Disraeli hoped to increase his authority within the party.

disraeli improving support 1850s

appointed Sir William Jolliffe as Chief Conservative Whip in 1854

disraeli improving organisation 1850s

placed the national organisation of the party under the direction of his own solicitor, Philip Rose who re-established the party’s central organisation and paid a member of his firm, Markham Spofforth, to oversee the conduct of elections.

They gave advice to candidates and re-created the network of local agents which had existed under Peel.

anti-conservative press 1850s

conservatives only reliable supporters were the Morning Post and Standard, both of which had small circulations. Most Conservatives seemed to regard the newspaper interest as their natural enemy, and any attempt to turn it into a friend as mere waste of time. Derby shared this view and disliked dealing with journalists.

disraeli attempt to gain press support 1850s

in 1849 he entered into separate negotiations to buy both the Morning Post and the Peelite Morning Chronicle. Neither scheme came to anything and the Post later switched its allegiance to Palmerston.

most influential paper of the day was The Times and in 1858 Disraeli sent its editor, Delane, a personal note giving him advance notice of the formation of the Cabinet. He was not rewarded with any better coverage. At this stage the Times was pro-Palmerston

conservative main aim 1850s

to construct a governing majority. There were two means to this end:

1. Winning Allies in the House of Commons

2. Gaining a majority in elections.

conservative policies 1850s

• Advocate an assertive, patriotic foreign policy

• Oppose Palmerston’s restless, aggressive foreign policy

• Cut government spending and reduce taxation

• Take up electoral reform and extend vote to working class