AP Psychology Unit 4 Social Psychology and Personality (Updated for 24/25 YS)

Attribution

The process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events

attribution theory

how we explain another person’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

attribute

quality or feature regarded as a characteristic or inherent part of someone or something

dispositional attribution

Attributing behavior to internal characteristics or traits of the individual.

Situational attribution

Attributing behavior to external factors or circumstances.

Explanatory style

how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event.

Optimistic

hopeful and confident about the future

Pessimistic

seeing the worst side of things; no hope

actor-observer bias

the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to external factors while attributing others' behavior to internal factors

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors and underestimate the influence of external factors when explaining the behavior of others

self-serving bias

attributing successes to internal factors (such as ability or effort) while attributing failures to external factors (such as luck or situational factors)

Internal locus of control

belief that one controls one's own fate or outcomes.

External locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate; learned helplessness

Mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking or preference for that stimulus over time

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief or expectation that influences behavior in a way that makes the belief or expectation come true

social comparison

evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others

upward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who you perceive as better off

downward social comparison

comparing ourselves to people who you perceive as worse off

relative deprivation

the perception that you are worse off relative to those with whom you are comparing yourself to

stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people

cognitive load

The amount of a person's cognitive resources needed to carry out a particular cognitive task.

prejudice

a negative attitude or belief held about individuals or groups

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior or actions toward a group and its members

attitudes

evaluations, feelings, or beliefs about people, objects, or ideas that influence behavior and responses to the social world

culture

the shared beliefs, values, norms, customs, traditions, and practices that characterize a particular group

implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious

explicit attitudes

Attitudes that are consciously held and can be easily reported.

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Out-group homogeneity bias

tendency to view an out-group as more similar to each other, or all the same, while seeing members of the in-group as more varied.

In-group bias

The tendency to favor your own group

Ethnocentrism

Belief in the superiority of one's nation or ethnic group.

Belief perseverance

tendency to stick with a belief even if evidence suggests it is not accurate

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

cognitive dissonance

mental discomfort when attitudes or beliefs are inconsistent with one’s behavior or actions

social norms

The expectations and roles a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members

social influence

The effect that other people have on an individual's thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behaviors.

normative social influence

when individuals conform to group norms or expectations in order to gain social approval or avoid rejection; go along with the group to fit in

informational social influence

conforming to the beliefs of others because you believe they have better or accurate information than you

Persuasion

the process of creating, reinforcing, or changing people's beliefs or actions

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

central route persuasion

method of persuasion focusing on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

peripheral route persuasion

a method of persuasion that relies on superficial factors like attractiveness, credibility, or emotional appeals

halo effect

overall impression of someone influences how we feel and think about his or her character; ex. attractive = good person

Foot-in-the Door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

door-in-the-face technique

persuasive technique involving making a large request before making a smaller, more reasonable request

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to match with a group standard.

obedience

changing one's behavior at the command of an authority figure

individualism

prioritizes the individual over those of the group, focusing on independence, autonomy, and personal achievement.

collectivism

emphasizes the group or community over those of the individual, focusing on cooperation, interdependence, and social harmony

multiculturalism

perspective that recognizes the cultural diversity of a country and promotes equal standing for all cultural traditions

group polarization

tendency for group discussion or interaction to intensify and reinforce the initial attitudes, opinions, or inclinations of group members, leading to more extreme decisions or positions.

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way; assuming someone else will take on the responsibility

Social loafing

tendency to exert less effort or motivation when working collectively in a group compared to when working individually; diffusion of responsibility and decreased accountability

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and individuality that occurs when individuals are part of a group or crowd

social facilitation

tendency of enhance performance on simple or well-learned tasks when in the presence of others

false consensus effect

tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors.

superordinate goals

common objectives or shared interests that require cooperation and mutual effort from conflicting parties

social traps

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

industrial-organizational psychologists

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

burnout

a state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged stress

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior

social reciprocity norm

expectation that people will reciprocate kind or helpful actions of others, fostering social exchange; we should help those who have helped us

social responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those in need, especially when they are dependent or vulnerable

bystander effect

individuals are less likely to offer help or intervene in an emergency situation when others are present

Psychodynamic theory

Freudian theory that unconscious forces and early childhood experiences determine behavior

Unconscious mind

thoughts and feelings outside of our awareness

defense mechanisms

unconscious strategies or tactics used by the ego to protect against anxiety, threats, or conflicts, by distorting reality, repressing impulses, or redirecting emotions.

Denial

defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

Displacement

defense mechanism that redirects emotional impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

Projection

defense mechanism; Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.

Rationalization

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

Reaction formation

defense mechanism; behaving in a way that is opposite to one's unacceptable impulses. (“i’m fine” → actually really nervous)

Regression

Reverting to an earlier stage of development in the face of stress.

Repression

defense mechanism that involves pushing threatening or anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings, or memories into the unconscious mind

Sublimation

defense mechanism; redirecting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities.

Projective tests

assessment tool used to reveal unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts by presenting individuals with ambiguous stimuli and interpreting their responses

preconscious mind

Freud's term for the area of the mind that contains information that can be brought into consciousness when needed.

id

unconscious; innate desires; driven by the pleasure principle, it demands immediate gratification of hunger, sex, and aggression.

ego

driven by the reality principle, it seeks to satisfy the id's desires in socially acceptable, realistic ways; balances conflict between id (pleasure principle) & superego (morality).

superego

internalized ideals and societal rules; acts as moral compass and judgement; strives for perfection.

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth

unconditional positive regard

an attitude of acceptance and respect toward individuals, regardless of their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, which fosters self-acceptance

self-actualization

the highest level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs; realization of one's potential

social-cognitive theory

The view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development.

reciprocal determinism

interaction between a person’s behavior, their environment, and their personal factors

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

self-efficacy

the belief in one's own ability to successfully accomplish tasks

self-esteem

an individual's overall evaluation of their own worth, encompassing feelings of self-respect

personality

an individual's unique pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that persist over time and across different situations

Trait theories

Theoretical views stressing that personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions (traits) that tend to lead to characteristic responses.

Big Five Theory

OCEAN a trait theory that identifies five main characteristics that account for most individual differences in personality

Agreeableness

A personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be compassionate and cooperative.

Openness to experience

A personality trait that reflects a person's openness to experience, creativity, and willingness to try new things.

extraversion

A personality trait characterized by sociability, talkativeness, and assertiveness.

Conscientiousness

A personality trait characterized by organization, dependability, and discipline.

neuroticism

A personality trait characterized by emotional instability, anxiety, and moodiness.

Personality inventories

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test