EFC

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] What is ethics?

Ethics is a set of values that define what is and is not acceptable behaviour in a society - principles and rules concerning duty, and the reasoning used to make decisions that don't violate one's conscience. It's a code of behaviour defined by the group an individual belongs to, based on widely agreed, almost universal standards. (Source: Nov 2022 exam Q1a / Lesson 1)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] What is the difference between morals, ethics and law? Illustrate with the case of a person who breaks a 'no entry' law to save a child from a burning house.

Morals are personal/religious beliefs about right and wrong. Ethics are the codes of conduct a society, institution or profession expects of its members. Law is the enforceable set of rules stating what is permitted or forbidden, backed by agencies such as police and courts. An action can be legal but unethical, or ethical but illegal - Andrew entering the house without invitation broke the law, but saving the child was the ethical choice, making his action illegal and ethical. (Source: Nov 2023 exam, Section A Q4 & Q20 / Lesson 1)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] List three major ethical theories.

Teleological theory / Utilitarianism - judges actions by their consequences (greatest good for the greatest number). Deontological theory - judges actions by whether they follow moral duty/rules, regardless of outcome (Kant). Virtue Ethics - judges actions by the character and virtues of the person acting (honesty, courage, compassion). (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q1 / Lesson 1)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] What does 'deontological' mean in the context of ethics?

From the Greek 'deon' meaning duty. Deontological ethics judges the rightness of an action by whether it follows a moral duty, rule or principle - not by its consequences. Developed by Kant: act only in ways you would be willing to have as a universal rule for everyone. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q5)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] Compare and contrast deontological and consequentialist (utilitarian) ethical theories.

Consequentialist/teleological theories judge morality purely by outcomes - the right act produces the greatest good for the greatest number. Deontological theories judge morality by whether the act itself follows a duty or rule, irrespective of outcome. Example: lying to protect someone from danger - a teleological view says lying is good because it saves a life; a deontological view says lying is wrong because truth-telling is a moral duty. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section B Q1)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] Why are Divine Command Theory, Cultural/Subjective Relativism and Ethical Egoism generally seen as poor guides for ethical decision-making, compared with reason-based theories like utilitarianism?

Divine Command Theory is impractical in a multicultural, secular society and doesn't address many modern problems; it is based on obedience, not reason. Relativism means 'right' varies with the person/culture, so decisions aren't grounded in reason and people can both be 'correct' while disagreeing. Ethical Egoism only serves self-interest. A workable ethical guideline should let you make persuasive, logical arguments - which is why theories such as Act Utilitarianism are treated as more appropriate guidelines. (Source: Nov 2023 exam, Section A Q9, 11, 12, 14)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] Using an example, explain how globalization has increased the likelihood of unethical behaviour.

Globalization creates a much more complex work environment, making it harder to apply ethical codes and principles consistently across countries and cultures. Companies under pressure to stay competitive in uncertain economic climates may lower standards abroad - e.g. a multinational applying weaker labour or environmental standards at an overseas subsidiary than it would at home, exploiting gaps in oversight created by operating across many jurisdictions. (Source: Nov 2023 exam, Section B Q2.1)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] Explain how ethical considerations can be included in decision making (think of the five steps).

A structured process: (1) identify the ethical issue; (2) gather relevant facts/information; (3) identify stakeholders and their interests; (4) analyse the options using ethical principles/theories; (5) evaluate the alternative courses of action; then decide, implement, and reflect on the outcome. Decisions are tested against values - shared principles about what is 'right,' 'desirable,' 'just' and 'of value.' (Source: Nov 2023 exam, Section B Q2.3)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] Discuss the challenges posed by new technologies in protecting intellectual property rights.

Digital technology makes copying and distributing content instant and global, undermining copyright enforcement; 'fair use' is harder to determine online; DRM restricts access but is controversial and can be bypassed; IP laws differ by country, complicating cross-border enforcement; open-source and user-generated content blur ownership; and fast-moving technologies (AI, blockchain) outpace existing IP law. (Source: Jan 2023 supplementary exam, Section A(c))

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] Is there a natural right to privacy for individuals at the workplace? Discuss.

This is contested: employees retain a reasonable expectation of some privacy, but employers have legitimate interests in security, productivity and legal compliance that can justify monitoring. Rather than an absolute natural right, workplace privacy is better framed as something to be balanced - through transparency, purpose limitation and proportionality - against the organisation's legitimate business needs. (Source: Jan 2023 supplementary exam, Section A(b))

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] What is ethics in the context of computing specifically (per the course tutorial)?

Ethics in computing extends moral philosophy's questions about right/wrong, good/bad to the design, development, deployment and use of technology systems - examining the moral implications of algorithms, data practices, artificial intelligence and cybersecurity measures, and their impact on individuals, societies and the environment. (Source: Tutorial 1 (2026))

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] Distinguish between descriptive and normative judgments in ethics.

Descriptive judgments describe how people actually behave or what they believe is right or wrong - facts about morality. Normative judgments state how people ought to behave - what is actually right or wrong - prescribing standards of conduct rather than merely describing existing behaviour or beliefs. (Source: Tutorial 1 Reading 2 - Normative Ethics)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] What is Kant's 'categorical imperative'?

The core principle of Kantian deontological ethics: act only according to a rule (maxim) that you could will to become a universal law followed by everyone. If universalising the rule leads to a logical contradiction (e.g., everyone breaking promises whenever convenient, which would destroy the concept of a promise), the action is not morally permissible. (Source: Lesson 1, slide 9 / Tutorial 1 Reading 2)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] What unique ethical challenges does a developing nation like Namibia face when adopting new technologies?

Equitable access to technology amid the digital divide; protecting data privacy within a still-developing digital economy and regulatory framework; responsible use of surveillance technologies in urban areas; and balancing rapid technological advancement (in line with Vision 2030's inclusive-growth goals) with social responsibility. (Source: Tutorial 1 (2026), Namibian context)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] What are the five key areas of 'Legal Foundations in Computing' covered in the course, with an example law for each?

(1) Intellectual Property Law - e.g. the US Copyright Act of 1976, covering software as a literary work; (2) Data Protection & Privacy Law - e.g. GDPR (EU), CCPA (California), PIPEDA (Canada); (3) Cybercrime Legislation - e.g. the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (US), covering hacking and malware distribution; (4) Contract Law - governs software licensing/cloud agreements via EULAs and Terms of Service; (5) Telecommunications Law - e.g. the Communications Act (US), covering spectrum allocation and net neutrality. (Source: Lesson 1, slides 14-18)

[Topic 1: Foundations of Ethics and Law] What common elements do modern data protection laws such as GDPR, CCPA and PIPEDA share?

Requirements for explicit consent before collecting personal data; individuals' rights to access and delete their own data; and mandatory breach-notification procedures - all built on principles of purpose limitation and data minimisation. (Source: Lesson 1, slide 15)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] List three key requirements/characteristics of a profession.

Specialised knowledge and expertise gained through formal training; commitment to a code of ethics/conduct; a service orientation towards the public good; ongoing professional development (lifelong learning); often certification, licensing or membership of a professional body. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q2 / Jan 2023 exam Q1a)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] Define 'professional ethics' in the context of computing.

The moral principles and standards of conduct specific to the IT profession, guiding how computing professionals should act towards employers, clients, colleagues, IT users, and society - covering honesty, competence, confidentiality, and accountability for the impact of their work. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q3)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What is a code of conduct, and what is its primary purpose?

A code of conduct is a document setting out the principles, values and rules of behaviour expected of members of a profession or organisation. Its primary purpose is to guide ethical decision-making - not to increase profit, limit innovation, or replace the law. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q4 / Supp Test (Oct 2024) Q2)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] Discuss the importance of codes of conduct in the computing profession.

Codes of ethics improve ethical decision-making by giving clear principles to follow; raise standards of practice and accountability; increase public trust in the profession; give professionals a benchmark for self-evaluation; and state the consequences of misconduct. Leading examples: ACM, IEEE-CS, AITP, and SANS. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section B Q2 / Nov 2023 exam Q2.6)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What relationships must an IT worker manage, and what key ethical issues can arise in each?

Employers - policies for responsible IT use, whistle-blowing, protecting trade secrets. Clients - avoiding conflicts of interest, fraud, misrepresentation, breach of contract. Suppliers - avoiding bribery, keeping procurement ethical. Other professionals - mentoring, avoiding resume inflation and improper disclosure. IT users - preventing software piracy and misuse of resources. Society - upholding safety, security, and positive societal impact. (Source: Nov 2023 exam, Section B Q2.4)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What can be done to encourage the professionalism of IT workers? Mention four.

Adhere to a recognised code of ethics; join and actively participate in professional organisations (e.g. ACM, IEEE-CS); pursue relevant professional certifications; support government licensing initiatives; and engage in continuous learning and mentoring of colleagues. (Source: Nov 2023 exam, Section B Q2.5)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What action can organisations take to encourage ethical behaviour of IT users? Mention four.

Establish clear guidelines for use of company hardware/software; define and enforce an Acceptable Use Policy (AUP); design information systems with built-in safeguards for data confidentiality, integrity and availability; install and maintain robust corporate firewalls; and ensure compliance with laws/policies through regular audits and training. (Source: Nov 2023 exam, Section B Q2.7)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] Describe the steps involved in ethical decision-making in a professional context.

(1) Identify the ethical issue; (2) gather relevant information; (3) consider all stakeholders; (4) analyse using ethical principles; (5) evaluate alternative actions; (6) make a decision and implement it; (7) reflect on the outcome. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section B Q4)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] Describe two considerations a whistle-blower must take before going public with allegations.

(1) Whether internal channels have been used first - raising concerns with management/relevant people inside the organisation before going public, since professional codes favour reporting internally and treat public whistle-blowing as a last resort. (2) The strength of the evidence and seriousness of the harm - public interest must clearly justify the action given the personal, legal, and reputational risk involved, and confidentiality/due process should be respected where possible. (Source: Jan 2024 supplementary exam, Section A Q5)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] Using the 'Be Fair to and Supportive of Colleagues' principle, how should you address a colleague (Sarah) who keeps missing deadlines and burdening the team?

This principle calls for encouraging colleagues to follow the code, assisting their professional development, and giving them a fair hearing rather than criticising or excluding them. Response: discuss the issue with Sarah privately, offer mentoring/training or pairing, help re-scope her workload fairly, and if the deadlines themselves are unrealistic, raise this with management rather than letting resentment build in the team. (Source: Jan 2024 supplementary exam, Section B Q1)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] Using the 'Participate in Lifelong Learning' principle, how should you address colleagues who resist adopting new technologies?

This principle requires staying current with developments in the field and continually improving one's abilities. Response: organise/encourage training on the new tools, demonstrate their quality and competitive benefits, mentor reluctant colleagues individually, and build a team culture that rewards continuous learning rather than penalising unfamiliarity. (Source: Jan 2024 supplementary exam, Section B Q2)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] A new customer-data analytics system risks infringing on privacy. How should you address this in line with the ethical principle of avoiding 'harms to privacy'?

Apply privacy-by-design: collect only the data necessary for the stated purpose (purpose limitation/data minimisation), obtain informed consent, anonymise or aggregate data where possible, secure it with encryption and access controls, and assess and disclose potential privacy harms before implementation - weighing the marketing benefit against the risk to customer trust. (Source: Jan 2024 supplementary exam, Section B Q3)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What are the three types of codes of conduct, and how do they differ?

Aspirational codes express the moral values a profession/company is committed to - an outward-facing statement of ideals. Advisory codes help individual professionals exercise moral judgment in concrete situations, based on general values and norms. Disciplinary codes aim to ensure all members' behaviour meets defined standards, typically with enforcement/sanctions. Most professional codes are advisory; corporate codes are more often disciplinary. (Source: Codes of Conduct (van de Poel & Royakkers), Ch.2)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What five characteristics are commonly used to define a 'profession'?

(1) Use of specialised knowledge and skills requiring long study; (2) a monopoly on carrying out the occupation; (3) assessment of competence only possible by peers; (4) a service orientation - providing society with useful products/services; (5) ethical standards regulating the profession's daily practice. (Source: Codes of Conduct, Ch.2, 'What is a Profession?')

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What is a 'conflict of interest,' and how should professionals handle it?

A conflict of interest arises when someone has a personal or professional interest that, if pursued, would conflict with meeting their obligations to an employer or client (e.g. owning shares in a supplier they are recommending). It doesn't always lead to immoral behaviour, but should be avoided where possible and disclosed to affected parties if unavoidable, since it can corrupt professional judgement and damage trust. (Source: Codes of Conduct, Ch.2, 'Integrity and competent professional practice')

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] Differentiate between professional codes and corporate codes of conduct.

Professional codes are formulated by professional associations (e.g. ACM, IEEE, NSPE) for members of an occupation, traditionally focused on integrity/competence, obligations to employers/clients, and responsibility to the public. Corporate codes are formulated by individual companies for their employees, typically including a mission statement, core values, stakeholder responsibilities, and detailed norms/rules - and are more often disciplinary in nature. (Source: Codes of Conduct, Ch.2.2)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What is Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), and how does Milton Friedman's 'classical view' challenge it?

CSR is the responsibility of companies towards stakeholders and society at large, extending beyond simply obeying the law and maximising shareholder profit. Friedman's classical view holds companies are responsible only to shareholders, arguing CSR spending misuses shareholders' money and that unelected companies shouldn't impose their own morality. Critics respond that ethical practice ('ethics pays') often benefits the bottom line, and that laws lag behind technology, so companies bear responsibilities the law doesn't yet cover. (Source: Codes of Conduct, Ch.2.2.2, 'Corporate Social Responsibility')

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What common objections/limitations are raised against codes of conduct?

(1) Self-interest - codes can be formulated mainly to protect a profession's or company's image or to silence dissent, rather than to promote ethics; (2) vagueness and potential contradictions between principles; (3) doubts about whether ethics can be fully 'codified' into rules; (4) whether codes can realistically be 'lived by' in daily practice; (5) weak enforcement - codes are only as effective as their enforcement by professional bodies or employers. (Source: Codes of Conduct, Ch.2.3)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What happened in the BART (Bay Area Rapid Transit) whistleblowing case, and why is it significant for codes of conduct?

Three engineers were dismissed in 1972 after repeatedly raising safety concerns about BART's automated train system through internal and, eventually, external channels. The IEEE supported them, arguing their professional code (holding paramount public safety, health and welfare) was an implicit part of their employment contract - but this didn't stop their dismissal. The case shows that acting ethically or per a professional code doesn't always protect a whistleblower from retaliation. (Source: Codes of Conduct, Ch.2.1, Case: BART)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] List five core principles from the ACM Code of Ethics.

Contribute to society and human well-being; avoid harm; be honest and trustworthy; be fair and take action not to discriminate; respect the work required to produce new ideas, inventions, creative works and computing artifacts (the Code also covers respecting privacy and honouring confidentiality). (Source: ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct, Section 1)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] According to the ACM Code, when might it be necessary to 'blow the whistle'?

If a computing professional identifies system risks that could result in harm and leaders fail to act to curtail or mitigate those risks, it may become necessary to blow the whistle to reduce potential harm - though the Code cautions that capricious or misguided reporting can itself be harmful, so the situation should be carefully assessed first. (Source: ACM Code of Ethics, Principle 1.2 'Avoid harm')

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] What is Continuous Professional Development (CPD), and why is it described as crucial for ethics?

CPD is ongoing learning - training courses, certifications, conferences, self-study, mentoring, and professional-body membership - that keeps professionals competent and current. It is crucial for ethics because fast-changing technology (quantum computing, advanced AI, blockchain) creates new ethical dilemmas that didn't exist before, so CPD helps professionals anticipate and address emerging ethical challenges proactively. (Source: Tutorial 2 (2026), Section 1.2)

[Topic 2: Professional Ethics in Computing] In the 'Whistleblower's Dilemma' case study (a developer discovers their app is collecting and selling user data beyond what the privacy policy discloses), what competing loyalties are at play?

Employer loyalty (protecting the company and one's job) versus user protection (the people whose data is being misused) versus legal compliance (data-protection law and the accuracy of the privacy policy) - a classic case for weighing internal reporting/whistle-blowing against professional obligations to the public. (Source: Tutorial 2 (2026), Case Study 1)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] List the four main types of intellectual property protection.

Copyright, Patents, Trademarks, and Trade Secrets. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q7 / Unit 3, slide 4)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] Define 'patent,' and state what makes an invention eligible for one.

A patent is a property right granted to an inventor, excluding others from making, using or selling an invention for a limited time (commonly 20 years). To be eligible, an invention must be: (i) useful; (ii) novel; and (iii) non-obvious to someone with ordinary skill in the same field. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q9 / Nov 2023 exam MCQ5)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] What is NOT a real type of patent - Utility, Design, or Economic patent? What is the difference between a utility patent and a design patent?

'Economic patent' is not a real category. A utility patent protects how an invention works or functions; a design patent protects the unique visual/ornamental appearance of an object. They serve different purposes: one protects functionality, the other protects aesthetics. (Source: Nov 2023 exam MCQ3 / Jan 2024 supplementary exam Q3)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] What does 'copyright' protect?

Copyright protects original works of authorship fixed in a tangible medium - literature, music, art, photographs and software (including source code, its structure, and user interfaces) - but protects only the expression of an idea, not the idea itself. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q8)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] What type of information does a trade secret protect, and how does it differ from (or improve on) a patent?

A trade secret protects confidential business information giving a competitive advantage (e.g. formulas, processes, proprietary algorithms), as long as secrecy is maintained. Compared with patents: (1) no application or public disclosure is required; (2) protection can last indefinitely while secrecy holds, whereas patents expire (e.g. after 20 years); (3) its validity is determined by courts in a dispute, rather than by a registration process. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q10 / Nov 2023 exam Q2.8-2.9 & MCQ6)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] Define 'public domain' in the context of intellectual property.

Public domain refers to creative works or intellectual property not protected by any IP right (copyright, patent or trademark) and therefore free for anyone to use, copy, or build upon. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q11)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] Explain 'fair use' in copyright law and give a digital-context example.

Fair use permits limited, unlicensed use of copyrighted material for purposes such as criticism, commentary, news reporting, teaching or research, weighed against factors like purpose, amount used, and market effect. Digital example: quoting a short excerpt in a blog review, or using a brief clip in a YouTube commentary/critique video. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section B Q7)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] Discuss the ethical implications of using open-source software in commercial products.

Pros: transparency and trust (inspectable code), collaborative innovation, flexible licensing, reduced cost. Risks: license-compliance exposure (e.g. copyleft licenses like GPL may force disclosure of proprietary code), possible unintentional patent infringement, loss of exclusivity once released, and ownership/attribution ambiguity among many contributors - companies must vet licenses and contributor agreements carefully before embedding OSS commercially. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section B Q5)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] Compare and contrast trade secrets and patents as ways to protect intellectual property.

Patents require public disclosure of the invention in exchange for a time-limited exclusive right, and must be novel, useful and non-obvious. Trade secrets require no disclosure or registration and can last indefinitely - but protection ends the moment the secret becomes known, and there is no remedy against someone who independently discovers the same information. Patents are enforced through registration and statute; trade secrets are protected/enforced through the courts on a case-by-case basis. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section B Q6)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] Explain how digital rights management (DRM) technologies relate to copyright protection.

DRM technologies technologically restrict access to and copying/distribution of copyrighted digital content (e-books, streaming, software licences). DRM reinforces copyright law by adding a technical enforcement layer that supports creators' revenue models and helps enforce rights across borders - though it is controversial because it can restrict legitimate uses and can be circumvented. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section B Q10)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] Which of the following is NOT a good example of a trademark: company logo, slogan, packaging design, or street address?

A company's street address is not a trademark. Logos, slogans and distinctive packaging design can all be protected as trademarks because they distinguish a brand - an address does not. (Source: Nov 2023 exam MCQ8)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] What is 'cybersquatting,' and what tactic can organisations use to counter it?

Cybersquatting is registering or using a domain name in bad faith to profit from someone else's trademark or brand. Organisations can counter it by proactively registering their trademarked names (and likely misspellings/variants) as domains early, and by using legal remedies such as trademark-infringement claims or a domain-dispute resolution process to reclaim squatted domains. (Source: Nov 2023 exam, Section B Q2.10)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] What are the three philosophical theories used to justify granting intellectual property rights?

Labor theory (Locke) - a person is entitled to the fruits of the labour they 'mix' with an object or idea. Utilitarian theory - property rights are artificial rights granted by the state because they maximise overall social good and incentivise innovation. Personality theory (Hegel) - property rights are moral rights because creative works express the personality of their creator, distinct from labour or economic incentive. (Source: Tutorial 3 Reading 2, Section 8.5)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] What are the 'four freedoms' of free software according to the Free Software Foundation?

(1) Freedom to run the program for any purpose; (2) freedom to study how it works and adapt it to your needs; (3) freedom to redistribute copies so you can help others; (4) freedom to improve the program and release your improvements to the public so the whole community benefits. (Source: Tutorial 3 Reading 2, Section 8.6.1)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] What is 'copyleft,' and how does it differ from ordinary copyright?

Copyleft (e.g. the GNU General Public License/GPL) uses copyright law in reverse: instead of restricting copying and redistribution, it guarantees that everyone who receives a copy or derivative of the work can use, modify and redistribute it - provided derivative works are also released under the same license, propagating the same freedoms forward to all future users. (Source: Tutorial 3 Reading 2, Section 8.6.1)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] What were PIPA, SOPA and RWA, and why were they controversial?

PIPA (Protect IP Act) and SOPA (Stop Online Piracy Act) were 2011 US legislative proposals aimed at strengthening enforcement against online copyright piracy, especially by foreign websites; RWA (Research Works Act) targeted open-access mandates for federally-funded research. Critics argued they would grant excessive government/rights-holder power to block or shut down websites, threatening free speech and the shared 'information commons' - so all were withdrawn after major public opposition. (Source: Tutorial 3 Reading 2, Section 8.8)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] Is cybersquatting entrepreneurship or intellectual theft? Consider the case of someone registering 'hillary2000.com' before a candidate's campaign could.

Cybersquatting exploits the name-recognition/trademark value created by someone else, typically to extract a resale payment, without the rightful owner's consent. Even where such registration is not always automatically illegal, most view it as a form of free-riding on someone else's reputation - which is why anti-cybersquatting laws and domain-dispute resolution mechanisms exist to let rightful owners reclaim such domains. (Source: Tutorial 3 Reading, Scenario 4 (Cybersquatting))

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] How can the same piece of software be protected simultaneously by copyright, patent, and trade secret law?

Copyright protects the literal source/object code and its expression as a 'literary work'; a patent can protect a novel, non-obvious functional process or algorithm within the software; and trade secret protection can cover confidential elements such as an unreleased or proprietary algorithm kept secret rather than patented (e.g. Google's PageRank algorithm). (Source: Unit 3, slides 9-13)

[Topic 3: Intellectual Property in the Digital Age] Why is computer software difficult to classify legally as either a 'product' or a 'service'?

A product has tangible form and intrinsic value (like hardware); a service has intrinsic value but no tangible form (like a repair). Software is a set of logical instructions - often distributed on a tangible medium but valued for its intangible logic and function - so it does not fit neatly into either traditional category, which historically made its legal protection problematic. (Source: Tutorial 3 Reading, Section 6.2)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] Define the term 'digital divide,' and explain why it is morally significant both globally and locally.

The digital divide is the gap between individuals/groups with access to modern ICT (computers, internet, smartphones) and those without, driven by geography, income, education, race/ethnicity and age. Globally, developed nations have far higher internet access (~70%) than developing nations (~25%), deepening inequalities in education, health and economic development. Locally - e.g. within Namibia - rural/low-income areas lag urban/high-income areas (4G coverage ~80-90% overall, but far lower in regions such as Kunene). It matters morally because unequal access means unequal opportunity, affecting fairness, democracy and social mobility. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q12 / Nov 2022 exam Q2 / Lesson 4)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] Explain how the lack of infrastructure contributes to the digital divide.

Without basic infrastructure - electricity, telephone lines, roads and broadband/cellular networks - ICT equipment cannot be deployed or maintained, and access points such as internet cafes/telecentres cannot be established. Developing regions also often lack 'humanware' (trained technicians and teachers), compounding the gap and preventing effective use of technology even where some equipment exists. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section B Q8)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] List two examples of employee monitoring technologies, and describe two potential benefits and two potential drawbacks of employee monitoring.

Examples: keystroke/computer-usage logging and video (CCTV) surveillance - also GPS/location tracking and biometric access control. Benefits: helps identify underperformance, and supports management control against misconduct/security risks. Drawbacks: erodes trust between employer and employee, and reduces employee privacy/autonomy, potentially harming morale and increasing stress. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section B Q9 & Q13)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] Define 'telecommuting,' and discuss its benefits and challenges.

Telecommuting (remote work/telework) is a work arrangement where employees work outside a traditional office, often from home. Benefits: flexibility, reduced commuting time/cost, potential higher productivity, and a wider talent pool for employers. Challenges: maintaining work-life balance, harder communication/collaboration, difficulty supervising remote teams, and risk of isolation/reduced team cohesion. (Source: Test 1 (Sept 2024), Section A Q14 / Lesson 4)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] Discuss the legal and ethical considerations of employee monitoring in the workplace.

Legally, protections vary by jurisdiction: the EU's GDPR requires transparency, purpose limitation and data minimisation; the US is more permissive and varies by state (California is stricter); Canada's PIPEDA regulates private-sector data use. Ethically, monitoring must balance legitimate business interests against employee privacy, dignity and autonomy - best practice includes transparency, limiting data to legitimate purposes, securing it, seeking consent where possible, human oversight of automated decisions, and periodically reviewing monitoring policies. (Source: Lesson 4, slides 22-24)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] State two harms and two benefits of privacy.

Benefits: protects individual autonomy and dignity from unwanted scrutiny; prevents personal information being misused for discrimination or harm. Harms (of excessive privacy/lack of transparency): can conceal negligence or wrongdoing; can hinder legitimate oversight, security checks or fraud detection. (Source: Nov 2022 exam, Section A Q1d)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] Discuss the three basic principles of Technology Ethics.

(1) Proportionality - the benefits of a technology should outweigh its risks/harms. (2) Informed consent - those affected should understand and, where reasonably possible, agree to the risks involved. (3) Justice - the benefits and burdens of technology should be fairly and equitably distributed across society, avoiding disproportionate harm to disadvantaged groups (linking to digital-divide concerns). (Source: Nov 2022 exam, Section A Q1c)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] How has office automation impacted employees, and what concerns does it raise?

Automation initially raised fears of job loss, deskilling, and loss of control, but in practice has led more to reskilling than mass unemployment, as organisations expand and need staff to manage new technology. It has also driven 'fear management' practices - downsizing, outsourcing, contingent workforces - creating job insecurity, alongside intensified employee monitoring, which raises ongoing concerns over privacy, stress and morale. (Source: DOC cheat sheet, Section 4 / Lesson 4, slides 17-18)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] What efforts exist to help bridge the digital divide? Give examples.

One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) - low-cost laptops for children in developing countries; Internet.org (Facebook) - free basic internet in developing regions (criticised over net-neutrality concerns); national broadband plans (e.g. Australia's NBN, the US National Broadband Plan); community access points such as telecentres and internet cafes; and supportive government policy on ICT importation/licensing. (Source: Lesson 4, slides 9-11)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] How did COVID-19 affect telecommuting and virtual offices?

COVID-19 sharply accelerated the adoption of telecommuting and virtual offices; in the US, the share of employees telecommuting roughly doubled from ~20% pre-pandemic to ~40% by May 2020, and several major companies (e.g. Twitter, Shopify) introduced permanent 'work from anywhere' policies - while also exposing digital inequality and the need for stronger remote-work cybersecurity. (Source: Lesson 4, slide 16)

[Topic 4: Social Context of Computing] What barriers hinder ICT development in developing countries, and how can they be overcome?

Barriers: poor infrastructure (roads, electricity, broadband, telephones); lack of skilled 'humanware' (technicians, teachers); unstable or unsupportive government policy; and high costs of technology, maintenance and licensing. Solutions: community access points (telecentres, cybercafes); government support through broadband policy, subsidies and partnerships; NGO/private-sector projects (e.g. OLPC, Internet.org); and a fair, stable political/legal environment for ICT import, licensing and innovation - always considering equity, fairness and local cultural context. (Source: DOC cheat sheet, Section 2 / Lesson 4, slides 10-1