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112 Terms

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Major Elements

Naturally occurring elements in the body that make up 96% of the body's composition, including oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

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Essential Elements

Elements that are necessary for the body's proper functioning, including calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium.

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Trace Elements

Elements that are required in very small amounts for specific functions in the body, including copper, zinc, iodine, and iron.

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Cofactor

A substance that allows enzymes to function properly.

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Polyunsaturated

A type of plant fat with many double bonds.

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Monounsaturated

A type of plant fat with one double bond.

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Dietary Fiber

A type of carbohydrate that provides bulk and helps with digestion.

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Protein-rich

A food or substance that contains a high amount of protein.

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BHT

A preservative used to extend the shelf life of food.

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Serving Size

The recommended portion size of a food or beverage.

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Calories

A unit of measurement for energy provided by food.

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Trans fat

A type of fat that is toxic and manmade.

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Radioisotope

An isotope of an element that has an unstable nucleus.

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Radioactive decay

The process by which an unstable nucleus rearranges itself.

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Electronegativity

The tendency of an atom to attract electrons.

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Partial charges

Charges that do not allow electricity to pass through.

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Ionic bonds

Bonds formed by the transfer of electrons between two unstable atoms.

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pH effect on the environment

The impact of acidity or alkalinity on the environment, including acid rain and coral reef health.

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Carbon

An element that is essential for life and forms the basis of organic compounds.

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Bonds

The connections between atoms in a molecule, including covalent bonds, double bonds, and single bonds.

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Hydrocarbon properties

Properties of compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen, including length, double bonds, branching, and rings.

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Methane

A hydrocarbon with the chemical formula CH4.

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Ethane

A hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C2H6.

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Ethene

A hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C2H4.

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Biomolecules

Macromolecules that are essential for life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

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Dehydration RXN (condensation)

A reaction in which a short polymer and a monomer combine, releasing a water molecule.

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Hydrolysis RXN

A reaction in which a large polymer is broken down into a short polymer and a monomer by the addition of water.

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Enzymes

Proteins that facilitate chemical reactions in the body.

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Carbohydrates

Organic compounds with the empirical formula CH2O, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

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Glucose

A monosaccharide and the primary source of energy for all organisms.

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Polysaccharide

A complex carbohydrate made up of many monosaccharide units, including starch, glycogen, chitin, and cellulose.

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Proteins

Macromolecules made up of amino acids that perform various functions in the body.

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Amino acids

The building blocks of proteins, including 20 different types with different properties.

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Primary structure

The sequence of amino acids in a protein.

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Secondary structure

The folding of the primary structure using hydrogen bonds, including alpha helix and beta pleated sheets.

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Tertiary structure

The further folding and twisting of a protein's secondary structure using intra-molecular forces.

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Quaternary structure

The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in a protein.

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Denaturation

The loss of a protein's structure and function due to factors such as pH, temperature, pressure, or salt concentration.

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Nucleic acids

Macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information, including DNA and RNA.

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DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, a double helix structure that contains genetic information.

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RNA

Ribonucleic acid, involved in protein synthesis and other cellular processes.

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Transcription

The process of copying DNA into RNA.

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Translation

The process of synthesizing proteins from RNA.

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Nucleotides

The monomers of nucleic acids, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.

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Lipids

Organic compounds that are insoluble in water, including fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.

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Triglycerides

Lipids used for energy storage, consisting of glycerol and three fatty acids.

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Saturated

A type of triglyceride with

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Polypeptide chain

A chain of amino acids that folds and twists to form the 2 or 3-degree structure of a protein.

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Glycoprotein

A protein that has sugar chains attached to it, which act as tags for sorting and delivering the protein.

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Transport vesicle

A membrane-bound structure that is created by budding off from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is responsible for delivering glycoproteins to their final destination.

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Golgi Apparatus

An organelle that receives, modifies, sorts, and packages chemicals from other organelles, and then ships them to their final destination.

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Lysosome

A specialized vesicle filled with hydrolytic enzymes that break down various molecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

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Mitochondrion

An energy organelle found in all eukaryotic cells that generates energy in the form of ATP through cellular respiration.

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Chloroplast

An energy organelle found in plants and algae that harvests light to produce food through photosynthesis, using chlorophyll as the light-absorbing pigment.

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Cytoskeleton

The skeleton of the cell located in the cytosol, which provides structural support and facilitates cell movement.

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Flagella

Long, whip-like structures that are few in number and are involved in cell movement, such as the tail of a sperm cell.

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Cilia

Short, hair-like structures that are numerous and are involved in cell movement, such as the movement of mucus in the throat.

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Extracellular Matrix

A network of proteins and carbohydrates located outside the cell, which holds cells together, facilitates communication between cells, and helps with cell identification.

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Cell Wall

A rigid structure made up of cellulose found in plant cells, which provides shape and support to the cell.

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Plasmodesmata

Openings in the cell wall of plant cells that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, allowing for rapid movement and communication between cells.

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Peroxisomes

Specialized vesicles filled with hydrogen peroxide that are involved in the oxidation of amino acids and fatty acids, as well as the detoxification of poisons.

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Microscope

An instrument used for magnifying and observing small objects or organisms.

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Membrane Proteins

Proteins located in the cell membrane that can be involved in transport, signal transduction, enzymatic activity, and cell-cell recognition.

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Passive Transport

The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration without the input of energy.

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Active Transport

The movement of molecules against their concentration gradient, requiring the input of energy, usually in the form of ATP.

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Diffusion

The movement of substances from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, driven by the random motion of molecules.

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Osmosis

The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration.

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Facilitated Diffusion

The movement of solutes from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration with the help of transport proteins.

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Sodium-Potassium Pump

A type of active transport that uses ATP to pump sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, maintaining the concentration gradients of these ions.

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Bulk Transport

The movement of large-sized chemicals or large quantities of chemicals across the cell membrane using vesicles, requiring the input of ATP.

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Anabolism

The set of metabolic pathways that build up large molecules from smaller ones, using energy in the form of ATP.

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Catabolism

The set of metabolic pathways that break down large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the form of ATP.

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First Law of Thermodynamics

The law of energy conservation, stating that energy is neither created nor destroyed, but can only change forms.

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Second Law of Thermodynamics

The law of entropy, stating that systems tend to become more disordered over time, with energy being lost to the surroundings.

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ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The primary energy currency of cells, consisting of adenosine and three phosphate groups, which can be hydrolyzed to release energy.

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Cellular Work

The various forms of work performed by cells, including chemical work, transport work, and mechanical work, all of which require energy in the form of ATP.

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Mechanical work

The physical movement or manipulation of cellular structures, including muscle contraction and movement of cilia and flagella.

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Enzymes

Proteins (sometimes RNA) that lower the activation energy (Ea) to speed up reactions.

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Activation energy (Ea)

The energy required for a reaction to occur. Enzymes lower Ea by bringing reactants close together, in the correct orientation, and placing stress on bonds.

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Active site

The specific region of an enzyme where the reaction takes place.

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Lock-and-key mechanism

Each enzyme is specific to a substrate, and the substrate fits into the active site like a key into a lock.

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Induced fit

When substrates enter the active site, the active site wraps tightly around them, leading to the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex.

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Cofactors

Inorganic chemicals that help enzymes function, such as zinc, manganese, and copper.

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Coenzymes

Organic chemicals that help enzymes function.

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Competitive inhibitors

Chemicals that compete with the substrate for the active site of an enzyme.

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Non-competitive inhibitors

Chemicals that attach to an enzyme at a different location, causing a change in the shape of the active site or blocking it.

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Feedback activation

As more products are created, enzymes work more and produce even more products.

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Feedback inhibition

As products increase, the enzyme is inactivated. The concentration of the product acts as the inhibitor.

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Energy flow in ecosystems

Compounds cycle between photosynthesis and cellular respiration, with the sun as the main light source.

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Photosynthesis

Process that uses sunlight as fuel to produce organic molecules and oxygen as waste.

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Cellular respiration

Process that uses organic molecules and oxygen to produce ATP for cellular work, with carbon dioxide and water as waste products.

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Entropy

The generation of waste energy and waste products in cellular respiration, leading to an increase in disorder.

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Redox reactions

Reactions that involve the transfer of electrons, with oxidation being the loss of electrons and reduction being the gain of electrons.

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Phosphorylation

The addition of a phosphate group to a chemical.

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Glycolysis

The breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.

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Krebs Cycle

A series of reactions that trap energy from Acetyl CoA in NADH, FADH2, and ATP.

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Electron Transport Chain

A series of proteins and molecules that transfer electrons, producing ATP.

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Poisons

Substances that disrupt cellular respiration, such as rotenone, cyanide, carbon monoxide, DNP, and oligomycin.

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Fermentation

An anaerobic process that occurs when there is not enough oxygen for cellular respiration, producing lactic acid or alcohol.

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Cell division

The process of a cell splitting in half to create new cells.