All units

Major Elements

Major Elements

Naturally occurring elements in the body that make up 96% of the body's composition, including oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

Essential Elements

Elements that are necessary for the body's proper functioning, including calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium.

Trace Elements

Elements that are required in very small amounts for specific functions in the body, including copper, zinc, iodine, and iron.

Cofactor

A substance that allows enzymes to function properly.

Polyunsaturated

A type of plant fat with many double bonds.

Monounsaturated

A type of plant fat with one double bond.

Dietary Fiber

A type of carbohydrate that provides bulk and helps with digestion.

Protein-rich

A food or substance that contains a high amount of protein.

BHT

A preservative used to extend the shelf life of food.

Serving Size

The recommended portion size of a food or beverage.

Calories

A unit of measurement for energy provided by food.

Trans fat

A type of fat that is toxic and manmade.

Radioisotope

An isotope of an element that has an unstable nucleus.

Radioactive decay

The process by which an unstable nucleus rearranges itself.

Electronegativity

The tendency of an atom to attract electrons.

Partial charges

Charges that do not allow electricity to pass through.

Ionic bonds

Bonds formed by the transfer of electrons between two unstable atoms.

pH effect on the environment

The impact of acidity or alkalinity on the environment, including acid rain and coral reef health.

Carbon

An element that is essential for life and forms the basis of organic compounds.

Bonds

The connections between atoms in a molecule, including covalent bonds, double bonds, and single bonds.

Hydrocarbon properties

Properties of compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen, including length, double bonds, branching, and rings.

Methane

A hydrocarbon with the chemical formula CH4.

Ethane

A hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C2H6.

Ethene

A hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C2H4.

Biomolecules

Macromolecules that are essential for life, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Dehydration RXN (condensation)

A reaction in which a short polymer and a monomer combine, releasing a water molecule.

Hydrolysis RXN

A reaction in which a large polymer is broken down into a short polymer and a monomer by the addition of water.

Enzymes

Proteins that facilitate chemical reactions in the body.

Carbohydrates

Organic compounds with the empirical formula CH2O, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Glucose

A monosaccharide and the primary source of energy for all organisms.

Polysaccharide

A complex carbohydrate made up of many monosaccharide units, including starch, glycogen, chitin, and cellulose.

Proteins

Macromolecules made up of amino acids that perform various functions in the body.

Amino acids

The building blocks of proteins, including 20 different types with different properties.

Primary structure

The sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Secondary structure

The folding of the primary structure using hydrogen bonds, including alpha helix and beta pleated sheets.

Tertiary structure

The further folding and twisting of a protein's secondary structure using intra-molecular forces.

Quaternary structure

The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains in a protein.

Denaturation

The loss of a protein's structure and function due to factors such as pH, temperature, pressure, or salt concentration.

Nucleic acids

Macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information, including DNA and RNA.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, a double helix structure that contains genetic information.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid, involved in protein synthesis and other cellular processes.

Transcription

The process of copying DNA into RNA.

Translation

The process of synthesizing proteins from RNA.

Nucleotides

The monomers of nucleic acids, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.

Lipids

Organic compounds that are insoluble in water, including fats, oils, phospholipids, and steroids.

Triglycerides

Lipids used for energy storage, consisting of glycerol and three fatty acids.

Saturated

A type of triglyceride with

Polypeptide chain

A chain of amino acids that folds and twists to form the 2 or 3-degree structure of a protein.

Glycoprotein

A protein that has sugar chains attached to it, which act as tags for sorting and delivering the protein.

Transport vesicle

A membrane-bound structure that is created by budding off from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is responsible for delivering glycoproteins to their final destination.

Golgi Apparatus

An organelle that receives, modifies, sorts, and packages chemicals from other organelles, and then ships them to their final destination.

Lysosome

A specialized vesicle filled with hydrolytic enzymes that break down various molecules, such as carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Mitochondrion

An energy organelle found in all eukaryotic cells that generates energy in the form of ATP through cellular respiration.

Chloroplast

An energy organelle found in plants and algae that harvests light to produce food through photosynthesis, using chlorophyll as the light-absorbing pigment.

Cytoskeleton

The skeleton of the cell located in the cytosol, which provides structural support and facilitates cell movement.

Flagella

Long, whip-like structures that are few in number and are involved in cell movement, such as the tail of a sperm cell.

Cilia

Short, hair-like structures that are numerous and are involved in cell movement, such as the movement of mucus in the throat.

Extracellular Matrix

A network of proteins and carbohydrates located outside the cell, which holds cells together, facilitates communication between cells, and helps with cell identification.

Cell Wall

A rigid structure made up of cellulose found in plant cells, which provides shape and support to the cell.

Plasmodesmata

Openings in the cell wall of plant cells that connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells, allowing for rapid movement and communication between cells.

Peroxisomes

Specialized vesicles filled with hydrogen peroxide that are involved in the oxidation of amino acids and fatty acids, as well as the detoxification of poisons.

Microscope

An instrument used for magnifying and observing small objects or organisms.

Membrane Proteins

Proteins located in the cell membrane that can be involved in transport, signal transduction, enzymatic activity, and cell-cell recognition.

Passive Transport

The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration without the input of energy.

Active Transport

The movement of molecules against their concentration gradient, requiring the input of energy, usually in the form of ATP.

Diffusion

The movement of substances from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, driven by the random motion of molecules.

Osmosis

The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration.

Facilitated Diffusion

The movement of solutes from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration with the help of transport proteins.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

A type of active transport that uses ATP to pump sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, maintaining the concentration gradients of these ions.

Bulk Transport

The movement of large-sized chemicals or large quantities of chemicals across the cell membrane using vesicles, requiring the input of ATP.

Anabolism

The set of metabolic pathways that build up large molecules from smaller ones, using energy in the form of ATP.

Catabolism

The set of metabolic pathways that break down large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the form of ATP.

First Law of Thermodynamics

The law of energy conservation, stating that energy is neither created nor destroyed, but can only change forms.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The law of entropy, stating that systems tend to become more disordered over time, with energy being lost to the surroundings.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The primary energy currency of cells, consisting of adenosine and three phosphate groups, which can be hydrolyzed to release energy.

Cellular Work

The various forms of work performed by cells, including chemical work, transport work, and mechanical work, all of which require energy in the form of ATP.

Mechanical work

The physical movement or manipulation of cellular structures, including muscle contraction and movement of cilia and flagella.

Enzymes

Proteins (sometimes RNA) that lower the activation energy (Ea) to speed up reactions.

Activation energy (Ea)

The energy required for a reaction to occur. Enzymes lower Ea by bringing reactants close together, in the correct orientation, and placing stress on bonds.

Active site

The specific region of an enzyme where the reaction takes place.

Lock-and-key mechanism

Each enzyme is specific to a substrate, and the substrate fits into the active site like a key into a lock.

Induced fit

When substrates enter the active site, the active site wraps tightly around them, leading to the formation of the enzyme-substrate complex.

Cofactors

Inorganic chemicals that help enzymes function, such as zinc, manganese, and copper.

Coenzymes

Organic chemicals that help enzymes function.

Competitive inhibitors

Chemicals that compete with the substrate for the active site of an enzyme.

Non-competitive inhibitors

Chemicals that attach to an enzyme at a different location, causing a change in the shape of the active site or blocking it.

Feedback activation

As more products are created, enzymes work more and produce even more products.

Feedback inhibition

As products increase, the enzyme is inactivated. The concentration of the product acts as the inhibitor.

Energy flow in ecosystems

Compounds cycle between photosynthesis and cellular respiration, with the sun as the main light source.

Photosynthesis

Process that uses sunlight as fuel to produce organic molecules and oxygen as waste.

Cellular respiration

Process that uses organic molecules and oxygen to produce ATP for cellular work, with carbon dioxide and water as waste products.

Entropy

The generation of waste energy and waste products in cellular respiration, leading to an increase in disorder.

Redox reactions

Reactions that involve the transfer of electrons, with oxidation being the loss of electrons and reduction being the gain of electrons.

Phosphorylation

The addition of a phosphate group to a chemical.

Glycolysis

The breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.

Krebs Cycle

A series of reactions that trap energy from Acetyl CoA in NADH, FADH2, and ATP.

Electron Transport Chain

A series of proteins and molecules that transfer electrons, producing ATP.

Poisons

Substances that disrupt cellular respiration, such as rotenone, cyanide, carbon monoxide, DNP, and oligomycin.

Fermentation

An anaerobic process that occurs when there is not enough oxygen for cellular respiration, producing lactic acid or alcohol.

Cell division

The process of a cell splitting in half to create new cells.