Unit 1: Scientific Foundations of Psychology (Chapter 1)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from Unit 1 Chapter 1 notes.

Psychology

The scientific study of mental processes and behavior.

Empirical Science

Knowledge derived from experience, observation, and experimentation.

Tabula Rasa

Latin for 'blank slate'; the idea that the mind is blank at birth and shaped by experience.

Wilhelm Wundt

Father of psychology; established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 at the University of Leipzig.

G. Stanley Hall

Pioneer American psychologist; established the first US lab at Johns Hopkins and founded the APA.

William James

Harvard professor; founder of American psychology; author of The Principles of Psychology (1890).

Biological/Biopsychological Approach

View that explains behavior in terms of brain, nervous system, genes, and physiology.

Behavioral Approach

View that focuses on observable behavior and learning from the environment; key figures Watson and Skinner.

Little Albert Study

Watson and Rayner study demonstrating conditioned emotional response in a child.

Psychoanalytic (Psychodynamic) Approach

View that behavior stems from unconscious drives and conflicts; associated with Freud.

Humanistic Approach

View emphasizing personal growth, self-fulfillment, and free will; associated with Carl Rogers.

Cognitive Approach

Study of mental processes: encoding, processing, storage, retrieval; attention, memory, perception, thought.

Social-Cultural Approach

View that behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures; considers social groups and norms.

Evolutionary Approach

View that behavior is shaped by natural selection and adaptation; nature vs. nurture.

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to believe one could have predicted an outcome after it occurs.

Overconfidence

Tendency to be more confident than correct in judgments.

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to seek information that confirms preconceptions.

Stereotypes

Fixed generalized beliefs about a group, often overgeneralized.

Experimenter Bias

Researchers' expectations influence observations or outcomes.

Case Study

In-depth study of an individual or small group, often not generalizable.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching and recording behavior in natural settings without interference.

Correlational Study

Examines relationships between variables; cannot establish causation.

Meta-Analysis

Statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies to determine overall effect.

Survey

Questionnaires or interviews to collect data on attitudes or behaviors.

Population

The entire group being studied.

Representative Sample

A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population.

Generalizability

Extent to which findings apply to the population studied.

Social Desirability Bias

Tendency to respond in a way that will be viewed favorably.

Convenience Sampling

Selecting participants who are readily available; may bias results.

Random Sample

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being included.

Cross-Sectional Method

Study of different groups from a population at one point in time.

Longitudinal Method

Study of the same individuals over an extended period to observe changes.

Independent Variable (IV)

Factor deliberately manipulated in an experiment.

Dependent Variable (DV)

Outcome measured in an experiment.

Confounding Variable

Extraneous factor that may affect the DV and obscure the IV’s effect.

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures what it intends to measure.

Operational Definition

Precise description of how variables are measured or manipulated.

Random Assignment

Participants are assigned to conditions by chance to create equivalent groups.

Placebo Effect

Improvement due to expectations rather than the treatment.

Single-Blind

Participants are unaware of which treatment they receive to reduce bias.

Double-Blind

Neither participants nor researchers know treatment conditions to prevent bias.

Informed Consent

Participants are told enough about a study to decide whether to participate.

Debriefing

Full explanation of the study after participation, including deception used.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

Committee that evaluates research risks/benefits and enforces ethics.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that describe data (central tendency and variation).

Mean

Arithmetic average of a distribution.

Median

Middle value in an ordered data set.

Mode

Most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest values.

Standard Deviation

Measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

Normal (Symmetrical) Distribution

Bell-shaped distribution where data cluster around the mean.

Positively Skewed Distribution

Most values cluster on the left; a tail extends to the right.

Negatively Skewed Distribution

Most values cluster on the right; a tail extends to the left.

Bimodal Distribution

Distribution with two distinct peaks or modes.

Inferential Statistics

Methods that allow generalization from a sample to a population.

Statistical Significance

Probability that results are not due to chance.

Effect Size

Magnitude of a relationship or difference between variables.