Ancient Greek: 5-8

κάθαρσις (λόγος 5): Essence

• Translates to kathariss in english, meaning “purification” or “cleansing.” Typically reserved within the idea of tragic dramas with the main character having a renewed sense or rebirth.

κάθαρσις (λόγος 5): Chronology and Context

• Evolved from its origin to being something physical to turning into a word that means something spiritual. 

• With religious purification and emotional purification being prominent throughout Greek history. An example would be with Plato and his idea of purifying our souls from distractions and desires of our body in the 4th century BC.

κάθαρσις (λόγος 5): Significance

• It allowed Greek audiences watching these plays experience a form of emotional catharsis. Allowing the ancient Greeks to have a healthy way to release pent up feelings within themselves. 

  • Watching these characters struggle with inner emotional turmoil and desires allows the ancient Greek audience at the end to have at the end of the show an emotional release and having their emotions cleansed having a sense of relief after the show. 

• This was almost a ritual practice helping the emotional and spiritual health of the overall community. With them being able to have a deeper insight into their own emotions watching the protagonist struggle and deal with many different conflicting feelings.

• Many audiences can have their anger and grief or other emotions channeled by the plays they watch. Such as with Medea, as they can either sympathize with her plight and understand why she killed her children after facing a harsh betrayal from Jason. Or they can villanize her and sympathize with Jason who must contend with that his children are dead and have been killed at the hands of not just their mother, but to that of a barbaros too.

Athens (τόπος 5): Essence

• A powerful and influential Greek-city state, being the main building block for western democracy and renowned for its literature, philosophy, and art.

Athens (τόπος 5): Chronology and Context

• Originally a Mycenaean settlement but then evolved into a powerful city state renowned for its art, democracy, and culture around the Classical period (c. 480-323 BC). 

• Major developments that came within Athens was that of democracy coming around under Cleisthenes (508 BC), the construction of the Parthenon (447-434 BC), being defeated during the Peloponnesian War losing over time its power and prestige.

Athens (τόπος 5): Significance

• The first Greek-City state to develop democracy, where citizens would partake in government by voting on laws, being on juries, and paying taxes. 

• Attracted lots of the arts, philosophers, and science with prominent thinkers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle coming to Athens. 

• Often considered the “cradle of Western civilization” as its progress and achievements during the Classical period left the groundwork and had a major lasting impact on the world. 

• Athens heavily differed from Sparta who was more known for focusing on strength and military force, Athens focused more so on education. As young boys tended to learn how to read, write, and engage in other arts. While young boys from nobler families tended to pursue higher education such as science and politics.

• Due to its strategic location as a city and with the discovery of silver mines, it helped develop them into a rich trading port city, having a busy port at Piraeus.

  • Athens had used the silver found at the mines to mint them into money, so they could fund their powerful navy. Which had helped them defeat the Persians and establish themselves as a powerful force in the Delian league.

Parthenon (ἔργον 5): Essence

• An ancient Greek temple built on the Acropolis of Athens, that was dedicated to the goddess of Athena. As she was also the patron goddess of Athens.

Parthenon (ἔργον 5): Chronology and Context

• It was believed to have been built between 447 to 432 BCE. 

• Its main purpose was that it was built to honor the goddess of Athena, especially during the period of Athenian powder following the Persian Wars

Parthenon (ἔργον 5): Significance

• A temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, the goddess of wisdom, warfare, and arts. Although there was a statue of Athena originally housed in the temple made of gold and ivory it was unfortunately destroyed. 

• The Parthenon was commissioned by the Athenian leader Pericles following victory over the Persians.

• Because it was the main temple in Athens it was seen as the most powerful one, due to Athens at the time being the most powerful of the Delian League, representing the league’s strength together and the prosperity going on at the time. 

• Often seen and regarded as a symbol of democracy, as it was founded during the period in Athens where there was great prosperity, after they had managed to defeat the Persians. 

• Represented the peak of Classical Greek architecture as it was achieved through mathematical equations that allowed it to be a visually perfect structure.

• Once housed many treasures and valuables, that reflected the once prosperous cities wealth. As it once functioned as the treasury for Athens.

δῆμος (λόγος 6): Essence

• Demos, meaning “people.” In Ancient Greece it typically meant the organized body or populace made up by the common people.

δῆμος (λόγος 6): Chronology and Context

• Originally referred to a local district or village but was soon evolved to represent the people of a city-state, more so in the context of political power. 

• In Classical Athens (508/507 BC) and onwards the meaning of the word soon expanded to the entire body of Athenian citizens. 

δῆμος (λόγος 6): Significance

• Typically refers to the general overall population, specifically during the age of democracy in Athens

• Emphasizes the collective democracy and will of the people which differentiates the rule by that of a monarch or an aristocracy

• The Greek root words of democracy, demos meaning “people” or “common people” and kratos meaning “power” or “rule.” Democracy directly means “rule by the people” or “power of the people.”

  • Also the Greek root word of “demographics,” meaning the study of statistical data about a population and the groups that may reside within it. 

• Used as the basis of citizenship, with after the reforms of Cliesthenes in 506 BC, being enrolled within demos became the new requirement for citizenship, which heavily contrasted the previous system based on family groups (phatries). 

• The key archstone of the state, as each had their own local government, leaders, and religious celebrations. Also being used to group the ten tribes of Athens.

Pronomos Krater (ἔργον 6): Essence

• A large vase used for mixing wine with water, carrying a depiction of an ancient theatrical troupe

Pronomos Krater (ἔργον 6): Chronology and Context

• Created around 400 BCE in Athens

• Discovered in a tomb at Ruvo di Puglia Italy, the imagery and inscriptions suggest that it was a vase for victory in a drama contest. Or it represents the elite marriage between two cities, so the scene instead depicts the connection of the two unions

Pronomos Krater (ἔργον 6): Significance

• An important surviving visual evidence of ancient Greek theater

  • Mainly for its depiction of a theatrical chorus and cast, with the musician Pronomos and the Greek god Dionysus

• Helps archaeologists understand the types of masks and costumes that was used in greek theater, showing actors and members of the chorus in different outfits and in moments of preparation

• Celebrates possibly a theatrical celebration or victory with the use of Greek wreaths, and the present of Dionysus as he is a patron of the theater. Because his origins come from religious festivals celebrating him.

• Helps show the process of how Greeks overall performed plays showing both the on stage and off stage moments that would possibly occur at the time when the Greeks were preparing for their plays and performances. 

Sicily (τόπος 6): Essence

• Referred to by the Greeks as Sikelia and was a major center of Hellenistic culture, also known as part of Magna Graecia “Greater Greece”

Sicily (τόπος 6): Chronology and Context

• Formerly an ancient Greek settlement, during this period it was known as Magna Graecia with it beginning in the 8th century BCE and lasting until the 3rd century BCE. 

• Established because of overcrowding, hunger, and search for better trade routes and opportunities with the Greeks establishing a flourishing and culturally significant region.

Sicily (τόπος 6): Significance

• It had extremely fertile land that could help produce valuable crops like olives and grapes, with its location in the Mediterranean made it a major trading center. 

• Syracuse amongst other city states growing into a powerful naval and military force, which had rivaled Athens and was fighting against Carthage for control of the area. 

• The island became a cultural hub for Greek theater, contributing with mimes, as the island had attracted famous poets, who composed many popular works like Pindar’s victory odes. 

• With the Greeks coming to Sicily they had introduced to the local area democracy, philosophy, science, drama, and the Greek language was spoken there until the Middle Ages. 

• Soon led to centuries of conflict, known as the Sicilian Wars as with the presence of both Greek and Carthaginian powers fought to be the one in control. 

• Served as a crucial site of communication between Greek and Roman powers, as the control of the local area contributed to the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage.

Thebes (τόπος 7): Essence

• A Greek-city state located in the region of Boeotia, known mainly for its powerful warfare and had played a key role in the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. 

Thebes (τόπος 7): Chronology and Context

• During the Mycenaean period it was a major center, reaching its peak around this time before its decline around in 1200 BCE. 

• During the Persian War (499-449 BCE) Thebes had sided with the Persians, also known as “Medizing.” During the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) Thebes was a major ally of Sparta against Athens.

Thebes (τόπος 7): Significance

• Known as a once powerful city state, place of mythology and tragedy, and was a major rival to other powers like Sparta with its military prowess. 

• Challenged overall the balance of power, which was mainly dominated at the time by Athens and Sparta. 

• Due to the fact that they had sided with the Persians in the Persian Wars and soon after with Sparta in the Peloponnesian War, they clashed afterwards with Sparta after.

• Thebes was eventually destroyed by Alexander the Great in 335 BCE.

• Housed many famous Greek tragedies and myths like Cadmus, Oedipus, Antigone, and Hercules. 

• The city’s founder Cadmus is credited to the introduction of the Phoenician alphabet to Greece. 

• Differ amongst Athens as it was a major agricultural society, versus Athens being a more trade and export city. As the city of Thebes has fertile soil meaning they were more able to grow an abundance of crops. 

• Located on a plateau, which meant they could easily look over the land, helping overall making them a strong force to be reckoned with.

ψυχή (λόγος 7): Essence

• Also known as Psyche referring to the broad concept of life and breath, the main motivating principle behind a person, their inner soul and self.

ψυχή (λόγος 7): Chronology and Context

• Seen in the Homeric period (8th century BCE) such as in Homer’s works, Iliad and Odyssey, with psyche being the force that leaves a person's body upon death. 

• Upon the Classical period (5th century BCE) the concept took on a more philosophical concept and became more complex.

ψυχή (λόγος 7): Significance

• Refers to breath or “breath of life” that brings life to a living being. 

• With the word being rooted in breathing and blowing, it is implied to mean the last breath someone takes before dying. 

• Central to religious and philosophical thought as it typically was translated as “soul” and “spirit” representing the animating principle of a human.

• Aristotle and Plato often explored the psyche as the principle behind movement, consciousness, and one’s self. 

  • Aristotle had thought the psyche as the “form” of a living being, or a multitude of capacities that defined a species

  • Plato saw psyche as something immortal, with psyche surviving upon death and existing before birth. As he saw the soul as something eternal housed in something temporary. 

• Best represented in the myth of Eros (Cupid) and Psyche. 

  • Psyche was seen as the goddess of the soul, who undergoes many trials and tribulations to end up with her love Eros, the god of love. The myth is often seen as a metaphor for what the soul will do to achieve immortality and the divine love between the union of two people.

School of Athens (ἔργον 7): Essence

• A fresco depicting the celebration of philosophy being the foundation of European civilization, with it blending ancient Greek and Roman ideals and thoughts with Renaissance culture.

School of Athens (ἔργον 7): Chronology and Context

• Painted around 1509-1511 in the Vatican and represents the proliferation of philosophy during the ancient Greek and Roman periods. 

• The central figures in the piece being Aristotle and Plato. Showing the differing philosophical ideals they had with Plato being idealistic and Aristotle being empiricist.

School of Athens (ἔργον 7): Significance

• The Renaissance brought again a revival of classical philosophy, arts, and literature. Shifting away from its medieval focus before on religion towards humanism, making a contrast from the Dark Ages. 

• Depicts many Greek philosophers, scientists, mathematicians together, representing the importance of them laying the groundwork for Western thought. Especially during this time with its renewed interest with Ancient Greek and Roman thought. 

• During this era it blended contemporary Christian thought with Ancient Greek and Roman values.

• The painting which featured Aristotle and Plato in the center showed their ideals and values through their movements within the painting. With Plato pointing toward the sky representing his idealistic world, while Aristotle pointed towards the physical world representing his philosophy of how experiencing the world is the main source of all knowledge.

• The painting represented the human ideals and values during the Renaissance era representing the renewed interest of classical thought was important to help them grow and progress as a society.

ῥητορική (λόγος 8): Essence

• The ancient Greek term for the word rhetoric, which means the art of persuasion in speaking or writing.

ῥητορική (λόγος 8): Chronology and Context

• Evolved from the need of persuasive speech during the rising formation of democracies (Archaic/Classical periods, c. 800-323 BCE). 

• Thrived with Sophists (5th century BCE) where many learned public speaking, and continued on as something important with the polis.

ῥητορική (λόγος 8): Significance

• Important in democracies like in Athens. 

• Helped shape public opinion, politics, and law. 

• Evolved from fixing practical needs to help fixing systematic problems and issues, with  people being taught. Helping learn proper syntax, arrangement, style, delivery, and etc. 

  • Developed at first from legal needs in Syracuse over where exiles argued to keep their land, and had to have strong arguments to plead their case as they lacked written evidence and juries at the time. 

• Rhetoric was debated in Ancient Greece with different people having different ideas about it. Sophists taught it as a skill, while Plato was skeptical about it; Aristotle had popularized it as a counterpart to logic. 

• Rhetoric is seen in Homeric heroes and formalized by teachers who developed techniques that we still see in practice today.

Alexandria (τόπος 8): Essence

• The city was founded by Alexander the Great in Egypt in 331 BCE, becoming a major center of Hellenistic culture, trade, and learning.

Alexandria (τόπος 8): Chronology and Context

• A Greek city in Egypt, which had become the capital of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, also a major Hellenistic center for trade, culture, and science until Roman conquest in 30 BCE. 

• It's known for being a crossroads of Greek, Egyptian, and Roman worlds, while also being known for its lighthouse and grid layout.

Alexandria (τόπος 8): Significance

• Home of the Great Library (that unfortunately burned down) and Museum, where it was a massive research institute where education thrived. 

• Attracted many great thinkers who would develop a lot of math and sciences we know today like geometry, geography, astronomy. 

• Pioneered scientific advancements too like medicine, anatomy, mathematics, and other foundations for science in the future. 

• A multicultural hub where Greeks, Egyptians, and Jews coexisted amongst one another, forming a vibrant, if contentious environment. 

• Was an economic powerhouse with it being strategically placed being connected to the Mediterranean trade routes. 

• Blended Greek rule with the Egyptian government, when it served as the capital of Egypt under the Ptolemaic dynasty. 

• The wealth and diversity of the country made it one of the most influential and largest cities in the ancient world, with Rome coming to a close second. 

• It featured one of the seven ancient wonders, the Pharos lighthouse, a symbol of maritime power and guidance.

Nero’s Theater (ἔργον 8): Essence

• A private Roman theater in Rome, built by Emperor Nero within his imperial gardens for personal and private performances.

Nero’s Theater (ἔργον 8): Chronology and Context

• Built during Nero’s reign (54-68 AD). 

• Located in the Agrippina’s Gardens on the Vatican Hill, next to Caligula’s circus.

Nero’s Theater (ἔργον 8): Significance

• A recently excavated, private venue where Emperor Nero rehearsed his acting and theater skills in private. 

• Before the excavation of his theater we only had bits and pieces of accounts and writings of it. So when excavated it had formed ancient texts and revealed his artistic pursuits, which at the time were seen as scandalous by the elites as they thought the artistic pursuits were below an emperor. 

• Nero used this theater to practice and hone his acting skills so when he did public appearances at major theaters he would not be laughed at, but was scandalous to the aristocracy at the time. 

• The theater emphasized his artisticness and demonstrated his imperial authority, as the theater was opulent and used to impress people which helped reinforce this message by his acting. 

• Unearthed significant artifacts and offered a glimpse into another layer of ancient Roman history linking the imperial age to other medieval finds.