Ib Psych Methods + Ethics

Internal validity

The extent to which study results are genuinely caused by the manipulated variables rather than confounding factors.

External validity

The extent to which research findings can be generalised beyond the specific study to other situations, people, or times.

Ecological validity

The extent to which research findings reflect natural behaviour in real-world settings rather than artificial environments.

Construct validity

test/study actually measures the specific psychological concept or trait it claims to measure.

Reliability

The overall consistency and stability of a measurement or research procedure when repeated under similar conditions.

Inter-rater reliability

The degree of agreement among different researchers or observers in their observations, ratings, or coding.

Generalisability

The extent to which study findings can be applied to a wider target population or different settings.

Credibility

The extent to which qualitative research findings are trustworthy, believable, and accurately reflect participant perspectives.

Triangulation

Using multiple research methods, observers, data sources, or theoretical perspectives to increase confidence in findings.

Reflexivity

The process where researchers self-consciously analyze how their own background, beliefs, and assumptions might influence the study.

Replicability

The extent to which a study's procedures can be repeated by other researchers to check if the same results are obtained.

Operationalisation

Defining abstract variables or concepts in terms of specific, observable, and measurable operations or criteria.

Standardisation

Keeping procedures, instructions, and testing conditions exactly identical for all participants.

Demand characteristics

Cues in a study that allow participants to guess the research hypothesis, leading them to alter their behavior accordingly.

Researcher bias

When a researcher's expectations, preferences, or personal beliefs unintentionally influence the data collection, analysis, or interpretation.

Interviewer effects

Characteristics or behaviors of an interviewer (e.g., gender, age, tone) that influence how participants respond.

Observer bias

When an observer's prior expectations influence what they notice, record, or interpret during observational research.

Observer effect / Hawthorne effect

The tendency for participants to alter their behavior simply because they are aware of being watched.

Participant expectations / expectancy effect

When participants' prior beliefs or expectations about a study influence their actual behavior or responses.

Social desirability bias

The tendency for participants to answer questions in a way that presents them in a favorable light rather than being honest.

Leading questions

Questions phrased in a manner that prompts or encourages a specific, desired answer.

Response bias

A general tendency for participants to answer self-report items inaccurately or untruthfully.

Central tendency bias

The inclination of respondents to avoid extreme options on a rating scale and instead select middle options.

Acquiescence bias

The tendency for respondents to agree with statements or questions regardless of their actual content.

Recall bias

Inaccuracies in self-report data caused by participants incorrectly remembering past events or experiences.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, or recall information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.

Representativeness

The degree to which a sample accurately reflects the demographic and key characteristics of the larger target population.

Sampling bias

A flaw in the participant selection process that results in an unrepresentative, skewed sample.

Undercoverage bias

A sampling error that occurs when certain members of the target population are systematically less likely to be included.

Volunteer / self-selection bias

Bias that arises when individuals who choose to participate systematically differ from those who do not.

Convenience / opportunity sampling

A non-probability sampling technique where participants are selected based on their easy accessibility to the researcher.

Purposive sampling

Selecting specific participants intentionally because they possess specific characteristics or experiences needed for the study.

Snowball sampling

A technique where initial study participants recruit additional participants from their own social networks.

Non-response bias

Bias that occurs when individuals selected for a study who do not respond differ significantly from those who do respond.

Small sample size

A study feature involving few participants, which often limits statistical power and generalisability.

Attrition

The loss of participants over time in a study, particularly common in longitudinal designs.

Hard-to-reach populations

Subgroups of people who are difficult for researchers to access or recruit due to stigma, marginalisation, or rarity.

Target population

The total group of individuals about whom the researcher intends to generalise their findings.

Independent measures

An experimental design where different participants are assigned to each condition of the independent variable.

Repeated measures

An experimental design where the same group of participants takes part in all conditions of the study.

Counterbalancing

A method used to control for order effects by varying the sequence of conditions across different participant groups.

Random allocation

Assigning participants to experimental conditions purely by chance to ensure equal distribution of participant variables.

Confounding variables

Uncontrolled external factors that systematically vary with the independent variable and provide an alternative explanation for the findings.

Laboratory vs. field research

A comparison between controlled artificial environments offering high internal validity and natural settings offering high ecological validity.

Quasi-experiment

A study design comparing groups based on naturally occurring differences where random assignment is impossible.

Cause and effect

Demonstrating that changes in the independent variable directly produce observed changes in the dependent variable.

Structured interview

A data collection method using a fixed set of standardized, predetermined questions asked in the exact same order.

Semi-structured interview

An interview technique combining a core framework of predetermined questions with the flexibility to ask follow-up probes.

Unstructured interview

An informal interview without fixed questions, allowing conversation to flow naturally around a broad topic.

Structured observation

A systematic observational method where target behaviors are categorized and quantified using predefined coding schemes.

Naturalistic observation

Studying participants' spontaneous behavior in their everyday environments without intervention or manipulation.

Overt vs. covert observation

The contrast between observations where participants know they are being studied versus those where they are unaware.

Participant vs. non-participant observation

The contrast between researchers joining the group being observed versus remaining external, detached observers.

Case study

An in-depth, detailed investigation of a single individual, group, event, or institution.

Correlational research

A non-experimental method examining the statistical association between two or more naturally occurring variables.

Longitudinal research

A study design that tracks and tests the same cohort of participants over an extended timeframe.

Cross-sectional research

A study design comparing different age groups or cohorts at a single point in time.

Mixed-methods research

An approach combining both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis within a single study.

Quantitative data

Numerical information that can be counted, measured, and subjected to statistical analysis.

Qualitative data

Non-numerical, descriptive information capturing meanings, feelings, experiences, and open narrative text.

Primary data

First-hand data gathered directly by the researcher specifically for the purpose of their study.

Secondary data

Information previously collected by other researchers or organizations for a different primary purpose.

Self-report data

Information provided directly by participants describing their own attitudes, thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

Behavioural data

Directly measured or recorded actions and responses of participants, rather than subjective reports.

Open-ended questions

Survey or interview items that allow participants to respond freely in their own words without fixed options.

Closed questions

Survey or interview items that restrict responses to a set of predetermined choices or numerical scales.

Likert scales

Rating scales measuring participant attitudes by asking them to specify their level of agreement with statements.

Rating scales

Structured assessment tools requiring participants to assign numerical or ordered ratings to specific items.

Rich, detailed data

Descriptive qualitative information providing deep context and nuanced insight into participant perspectives.

Large amounts of data

Broad datasets collected from broad samples or numerous variables to enable macro-level analysis.

In-depth data

Thorough, detailed findings that allow comprehensive exploration of complex psychological phenomena.

Numerical data

Information formatted as numbers, allowing mathematical operations and statistical comparisons.

Informed consent

An ethical requirement ensuring participants voluntarily agree to join a study after fully understanding its nature and risks.

Deception

Intentional misleading of participants regarding study goals or procedures, requiring justification and subsequent debriefing.

Right to withdraw

The ethical principle allowing participants to stop participating and remove their data at any stage without negative consequences.

Privacy

The participant's right to control the disclosure and boundary management of their personal information.

Confidentiality

The ethical obligation of researchers to safeguard participant information from unauthorised public access.

Anonymity

Ensuring participant identity cannot be linked to their research data by anyone, including the researcher.

Protection from harm

The imperative obligation to prevent participants from experiencing physical injury or psychological distress.

Vulnerable participants

Groups (e.g., children, individuals with cognitive impairments) requiring extra ethical safeguards due to diminished autonomy.

Data protection

Legal and administrative procedures governing the secure collection, storage, and processing of personal research records.

Socially sensitive research

Studies investigating topics with potential broader social repercussions, stigma, or policy implications for groups.

Debriefing

A post-experimental session informing participants of the study's true aim, addressing deception, and restoring well-being.

High control

The ability in experimental settings to minimize extraneous noise and rigorously isolate independent variables.

Low control

Research environments where extraneous variables cannot be tightly managed, characteristic of naturalistic field studies.

Artificiality

A limitation where laboratory tasks or conditions differ significantly from real-life circumstances.

High ecological validity

A research strength where experimental tasks and settings accurately mimic natural, real-world conditions.

Flexibility

The capacity in qualitative designs to adjust data collection methods dynamically as new insights emerge.

Time-consuming

A practical limitation of research methods requiring extensive duration for execution, transcription, or analysis.

Cost-effective

Research methods that yield valuable data with minimal financial expenditure.

Resource intensive

Studies requiring substantial expenditure of time, specialized equipment, financial capital, or research staff.

Difficult to establish causation

A limitation of non-experimental designs where associations between variables cannot prove directionality or direct cause.

Researcher influence

Unintentional effects caused by researcher presence, demeanor, or interpretation on participant behavior or findings.

Participant involvement

The degree to which individuals actively engage with and contribute to the research process.

Depth vs. breadth

The methodological trade-off between collecting granular, qualitative detail from few people versus shallow data from many.

Experimental control

The manipulation of conditions to eliminate confounding variables and isolate the effect of the independent variable.

Explores complex experiences

A major strength of qualitative research allowing nuanced investigation of subjective human thoughts and feelings.

Large sample sizes

Collecting data from a high volume of participants to increase statistical power and sample representativeness.

Direct measurement of behaviour

Recording actual observed physical actions rather than relying on subjective self-reports from participants.

High participant engagement

A research feature where participants are deeply involved and interactive in data gathering activities.