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Ma’at

Ma’at is the ancient Egyptian concept representing truth, justice, and cosmic order. | Date: Ancient Egypt | Author/Creator: Various rulers and priests | Purpose: Governance and ethical conduct | Significance: Central to Egyptian culture, it symbolizes the balance of the universe and the ethical code that governed individuals and state actions.

Annual flood

The Annual flood refers to the seasonal inundation of the Nile River that fertilizes agricultural lands. | Date: Annual event | Author/Creator: Nature | Purpose: Agricultural nourishment | Significance: Vital for crop growth, it allowed for the sustenance of the population and the economy in ancient Egypt.

Manetho

Manetho was an ancient Egyptian priest and historian known for recording Egypt’s dynasties for Greek historians. | Date: 3rd century BCE | Author/Creator: Manetho | Purpose: Chronicle of Egyptian history | Significance: His work provided a vital source for understanding Egyptian chronology and lineage through king lists.

King Lists

King Lists are official records documenting the succession of pharaohs in ancient Egypt. | Date: Various periods | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptian scribes | Purpose: Record royal succession | Significance: They served to legitimize current rulers by connecting them to their predecessors, revealing the political history of Egypt.

Papyrus/Papyri

Papyrus is a writing material made from the pith of the papyrus plant used extensively in ancient Egypt. | Date: Predynastic to Roman periods | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Writing and record-keeping | Significance: Allowed for the recording of literature, administrative documents, and religious texts, marking a significant advancement in communication.

Ostracon/Ostraca

Ostracon refers to pottery or stone fragments utilized as informal writing surfaces. | Date: Various periods | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Writing informal notes | Significance: Provides insight into daily life and the socio-economic context of ancient Egypt through administrative and personal records.

Narmer

Narmer, also known as Menes, is credited as the first king of Egypt, associated with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. | Date: Circa 3100 BCE | Author/Creator: Historical records | Purpose: Unified rule | Significance: Marked the beginning of the First Dynasty and the establishment of pharaonic kingship in Egypt.

Mastaba tomb

A Mastaba tomb is a rectangular structure with sloping sides used for burying the dead in ancient Egypt. | Date: Early Dynastic to Old Kingdom | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Burial of the deceased | Significance: Reflects the religious beliefs surrounding death and the afterlife, serving to house the dead and preserve their belongings.

Pyramids at Giza

The Pyramids at Giza are monumental structures built for pharaohs during the Fourth Dynasty. | Date: Circa 2580-2560 BCE | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptian architects and laborers | Purpose: Royal tombs | Significance: Icons of ancient Egypt, showcasing architectural skill and religious beliefs about the afterlife.

Nome

A Nome is an administrative region in ancient Egypt that reflects its decentralized governance. | Date: Various periods | Author/Creator: Local governments | Purpose: Regional administration | Significance: Essential for tax collection and resource management, contributing to the stability of the state.

Osiris

Osiris is the Egyptian god of the afterlife and resurrection, who judges the souls of the dead. | Date: Predynastic to Roman periods | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Judge of the dead | Significance: Central figure in Egyptian mythology symbolizing renewal and the cyclical nature of life and death.

Isis

Isis is the goddess of magic, motherhood, and protection in ancient Egyptian religion. | Date: Predynastic to Roman periods | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Protector of Osiris and motherhood | Significance: Embodies marital devotion and maternal care, establishing her as a major deity in Egyptian worship.

Seth

Seth, also known as Set, is the god of chaos, storms, and conflict, opposing the order represented by Osiris and Horus. | Date: Predynastic to Roman periods | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Personification of chaos | Significance: Represents the duality of the universe and the necessary balance between order and chaos.

Ra/Re/Amun-Ra

Ra, also known as Re and Amun-Ra, is the sun god and a central figure in the Egyptian pantheon. | Date: Predynastic to Roman periods | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Symbol of life and creation | Significance: Represented divine kingship and was considered the ultimate deity in the state religion.

Hieroglyphics

Hieroglyphics is the ancient Egyptian writing system using pictorial symbols for communication. | Date: Predynastic to Roman periods | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Record sacred, official, and administrative information | Significance: Illustrates the complexity of Egyptian literacy and their cultural heritage through preserved texts.

Hieratic

Hieratic is a cursive writing style derived from hieroglyphics used for everyday purposes in Egypt. | Date: From the early Dynastic period to the end of the Pharaonic period | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Writing everyday documents | Significance: Streamlined record keeping, reflecting the practical needs of administration and commerce.

Nubia

Nubia refers to the region located south of Egypt, known for its rich resources and strategic importance. | Date: Ancient periods | Author/Creator: Various cultures | Purpose: Trade and military endeavors | Significance: Affected Egyptian policies and interactions, showcasing the interconnectedness of ancient civilizations.

Sphinx

The Sphinx is a mythological creature with a lion's body and a human head, symbolizing royal power. | Date: Old Kingdom | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Guardian of sacred sites | Significance: Represents strength and intelligence, embodying the authority of pharaohs.

Sneferu

Sneferu was the pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty known for his significant contributions to pyramid construction. | Date: Circa 2670-2620 BCE | Author/Creator: Sneferu and his architects | Purpose: Royal tomb construction | Significance: Pioneered architectural innovations, setting the standard for later pyramids.

Vizier

A Vizier is the chief administrator in ancient Egypt, responsible for managing the state’s affairs on behalf of the pharaoh. | Date: Various periods | Author/Creator: Pharaohs | Purpose: Governance and administration | Significance: Vital role in maintaining the kingdom's stability, overseeing tax collection and legal matters.

Horus

Horus is the Egyptian falcon god representing kingship and the sky, protecting the pharaohs. | Date: Predynastic to Roman periods | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Divine association with kingship | Significance: Symbolizes the connection between the divine and the monarchy, often depicted in royal iconography.

Pyramid Texts

The Pyramid Texts are the oldest religious texts from Egypt, designed to guide pharaohs in the afterlife. | Date: Old Kingdom | Author/Creator: Ancient priests | Purpose: Afterlife guidance | Significance: Contain spells and rituals that reflect religious beliefs and the significance of the afterlife.

Thebes

Thebes is the city that served as the religious capital of ancient Egypt during the New Kingdom. | Date: New Kingdom | Author/Creator: Various | Purpose: Center for worship and political power | Significance: Home to many temples and monuments, representing the cultural and spiritual heart of Egypt.

Nebehetra Menuhotep II

Nebehetra Menuhotep II was a pharaoh known for reuniting Egypt after the First Intermediate Period. | Date: Circa 2055-2004 BCE | Author/Creator: Historical records | Purpose: Restoration of order | Significance: His reign marked a significant turning point, leading to the Middle Kingdom's stability.

Sema-tawy symbol

The Sema-tawy symbol signifies the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, often depicted with two plants tied together. | Date: Ancient periods | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Symbol of political unity | Significance: Represents the importance of harmony and balance between the two regions in Egyptian thought.

Asiatics/Syro-Palestine

Asiatics or Syro-Palestinians refer to the peoples living east of Egypt, known for trade and conflict. | Date: Various periods | Author/Creator: Historical records | Purpose: Cultural and economic interaction | Significance: Their presence influenced Egyptian politics, reflecting the interconnectedness of ancient cultures.

Kamose

Kamose was a pharaoh who led military campaigns against the Hyksos invaders. | Date: Circa 1555-1550 BCE | Author/Creator: Historical accounts | Purpose: Resistance against foreign rule | Significance: Initiated the expulsion of the Hyksos, paving the way for the reunification of Egypt.

Lahun

Lahun is a workers' town built to house laborers constructing pyramids during the Middle Kingdom. | Date: Middle Kingdom | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Housing for laborers | Significance: Provides insight into the organization of labor and society during large-scale construction projects.

Avaris

Avaris was the capital city of the Hyksos during their rule in Egypt, serving as a political and economic center. | Date: Second Intermediate Period | Author/Creator: Hyksos rulers | Purpose: Governance and trade | Significance: Important for understanding interactions and conflicts between the Hyksos and Egyptians.

Hedjerit

Hedjerit is a fictional character representing a middle-class girl in Middle Kingdom Egypt. | Date: Middle Kingdom | Author/Creator: Literary traditions | Purpose: Illustrating daily life | Significance: Provides insight into women's roles and social dynamics in ancient Egyptian society.

Provenance

Provenance refers to the origin and history of an artifact, crucial for understanding its value. | Date: Anytime an artifact is discovered | Author/Creator: Archaeologists/Historians | Purpose: Analyzing artifacts | Significance: Establishing provenance is vital for authenticity and insights into cultural and historical contexts.

Sed festival

The Sed festival is a royal jubilee ritual intended to renew the king's power after thirty years of reign. | Date: Celebrated after 30 years | Author/Creator: Ancient Egyptians | Purpose: Renewal of kingship | Significance: Reinforced the pharaoh's divine right to rule and relationship with the gods through elaborate celebrations.

Faience

Faience is a bright blue-green glazed ceramic material crafted into beads, amulets, and decorative items. | Date: All periods | Author/Creator: Artisans | Purpose: Jewelry and amulets | Significance: Faience’s widespread use reflects Egypt’s advanced craftsmanship and belief in protective magic. Robins (Ch. 4) showcases its artistic and spiritual value across periods.

Story of Sinuhe

Middle Kingdom narrative on papyrus about a noble’s exile and triumphant return to Egypt. | Date: ~1900 BCE, Middle Kingdom | Author/Creator: Unknown scribe | Purpose: Entertainment/propaganda | Significance: Sinuhe’s tale celebrates loyalty to the king and Egyptian identity, marking a literary high point.

Man Weary of Life

Middle Kingdom philosophical dialogue exploring a man’s despair and hope, written on papyrus. | Date: Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE) | Author/Creator: Unknown scribe | Purpose: Philosophical reflection | Significance: This text reveals deep emotional and existential thought, adding complexity to Egyptian wisdom literature.

Semna Stelae

Stone markers erected by Senusret III at Nubian fortresses, declaring Egypt’s southern boundary. | Date: ~1878 BCE, Middle Kingdom | Author/Creator: Senusret III, scribes | Purpose: To claim Nubian control | Significance: These stelae showcase Middle Kingdom military pride and territorial ambition.

Ka, Ba, Akh

Spiritual triad of the soul: Ka (life force), Ba (personality), Akh (unified spirit in afterlife). | Date: Old Kingdom onward (~2686 BCE+) | Author/Creator: Priests | Purpose: To explain afterlife | Significance: These concepts shaped Egypt’s intricate afterlife theology, influencing burial customs across periods.

Pharaoh

Title for Egypt’s divine king, a ruler seen as a living god bridging the human and divine realms. | Date: All periods | Author/Creator: Succession of rulers | Purpose: To rule as god | Significance: The pharaoh was Egypt’s unifying figure, embodying Ma’at and wielding absolute power.

Grid systems in art and architecture

Proportional guidelines used by artists and builders to ensure symmetry and harmony in works. | Date: Old Kingdom onward (~2686 BCE+) | Author/Creator: Artists | Purpose: To standardize depictions | Significance: Grid systems reveal Egypt’s meticulous approach to aesthetics, ensuring timeless artistic consistency.

First Intermediate Period

Turbulent era of political fragmentation after the Old Kingdom, marked by rival dynasties and local rule. | Date: ~2181–2055 BCE | Author/Creator: N/A | Purpose: N/A | Significance: This period exposes Egypt’s fragility without a strong central authority, contrasting with unified eras.

Buhen

Fortified settlement in Nubia, constructed to protect Egypt’s southern frontier and trade routes. | Date: Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE) | Author/Creator: Senusret III | Purpose: To defend border | Significance: Buhen exemplifies Middle Kingdom militarization and control over Nubia, securing vital resources.

Kingdom of Kush

Powerful Nubian state south of Egypt, a rival kingdom and trade partner with its own rulers. | Date: Middle Kingdom onward (~2055 BCE+) | Author/Creator: Kushites | Purpose: Rival/trade partner | Significance: Kush challenged Egypt’s southern dominance, influencing later conflicts and exchanges.

Memphis

Ancient capital in Lower Egypt near the Delta, a key political, religious, and economic center. | Date: Old Kingdom onward (~2686 BCE+) | Author/Creator: Pharaohs | Purpose: Administrative/religious center | Significance: Memphis anchored northern power, symbolizing Egypt’s early unity and strength.

Senusret/Senwosret III

12th Dynasty pharaoh who expanded Egypt’s borders, built Nubian forts, and centralized power. | Date: ~1878–1839 BCE, Middle Kingdom | Author/Creator: Senusret III | Purpose: To strengthen Egypt | Significance: His reign marks the Middle Kingdom’s military and administrative zenith, stabilizing the state.

Cartouche

Oval frame encircling a pharaoh’s name in hieroglyphs, a royal emblem of identity and sanctity. | Date: Old Kingdom onward (~2686 BCE+) | Author/Creator: Scribes | Purpose: To identify pharaohs | Significance: Cartouches visually affirmed the pharaoh’s divine status, a constant in royal art.

Hyksos

Foreign invaders from Syro-Palestine who ruled Lower Egypt as a dynasty, based in Avaris. | Date: ~1650–1550 BCE, Second Intermediate | Author/Creator: Asiatics | Purpose: To rule north | Significance: The Hyksos disrupted native rule, introducing technologies like chariots that reshaped Egypt.

Birth wand/tusk

Curved ivory ritual object inscribed with protective deities, used by women during childbirth. | Date: Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE) | Author/Creator: Artisans | Purpose: To aid childbirth | Significance: These wands reflect domestic religion and the importance of maternal protection in daily life.

Taweret

Hippopotamus goddess of childbirth and protection, depicted with a pregnant belly and fierce features. | Date: Middle Kingdom onward (~2055 BCE+) | Author/Creator: Mythic | Purpose: To protect childbirth | Significance: Taweret’s worship underscores the centrality of family and safety in Egyptian households.

The Shipwrecked Sailor

Middle Kingdom tale of a sailor’s adventure on a magical island, blending realism and fantasy. | Date: Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE) | Author/Creator: Unknown scribe | Purpose: Entertainment | Significance: This story highlights storytelling’s role in expressing resilience and divine favor.

Djoser

3rd Dynasty pharaoh who commissioned the Step Pyramid, designed by Imhotep, first in stone. | Date: ~2670 BCE, Old Kingdom | Author/Creator: Djoser, Imhotep | Purpose: To build Step Pyramid | Significance: Djoser’s pyramid marks the shift to monumental architecture, heralding the Old Kingdom’s grandeur.

Satire on the Trades

Middle Kingdom text mocking manual labor while extolling the scribe’s privileged status. | Date: Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE) | Author/Creator: Scribes | Purpose: To praise scribes | Significance: This work reveals Egypt’s rigid social hierarchy and the high value placed on literacy.

King Cheops and the Magician

Middle Kingdom story of Khufu (Cheops) witnessing magical feats, mixing history with myth. | Date: Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE) | Author/Creator: Scribes | Purpose: Entertainment | Significance: It enhances Khufu’s mystique, showing how literature preserved and embellished royal legacies.

Tale of the Eloquent Peasant

Middle Kingdom narrative of a peasant seeking justice through eloquent pleas to officials. | Date: Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE) | Author/Creator: Scribes | Purpose: Moral lesson | Significance: The tale upholds Ma’at through justice, reflecting ethical ideals prized in Egyptian society.

Maxims of Ptahhotep

Old Kingdom wisdom text, later copied, offering practical advice on virtue and leadership. | Date: Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE), copied later | Author/Creator: Ptahhotep | Purpose: To teach virtue | Significance: These maxims establish a moral foundation that persisted across Egypt’s history, influencing behavior.

Stelae of Iykhernofret

Middle Kingdom inscriptions by official Iykhernofret, detailing his role in an Osiris festival. | Date: Middle Kingdom (~2055–1650 BCE) | Author/Creator: Iykhernofret | Purpose: To record festival | Significance: These stelae reveal the importance of religious duties and Osiris’ cult in Middle Kingdom life.

OK Autobiographies

Old Kingdom tomb inscriptions by elites (e.g., Weni, Harkhuf), boasting of their deeds and royal favor. | Date: Old Kingdom (~2686–2181 BCE) | Author/Creator: Elites | Purpose: To boast achievements | Significance: These texts provide personal insights into elite life and loyalty to the pharaoh.