Unit VII - JFK, LBJ, and the Later Cold War

What did the Warren Commission conclude about Kennedy's assassination?

The Warren Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone to kill Kennedy and that there was no larger conspiracy. This conclusion remains controversial.

What were some of the major programs in Johnson's "Great Society?"

Medicare and Medicaid (government health insurance for the elderly and poor, respectively) have proven to be the most impactful programs. Other programs included Head Start (pre-school for poor children) and VISTA (a volunteer program to help poor communities in the USA).

What was the experience of the first televised Presidential Debate?

Kennedy, tanned and relaxed, achieved a visual advantage over Nixon, who was recovering from a cold and seemed less comfortable. Television viewers judged Kennedy the winner, while radio listeners disagreed. This debate may have provided a sufficient boost to help Kennedy pull ahead.

Why did the USSR build the Berlin Wall?

Ever since the partition of Germany after WWII, people in the Communist bloc would travel to East Berlin and then cross to West Berlin in order to escape. The Communists were losing many of their best educated and most productive citizens. The wall was built to prevent any further defections.

How did Congress authorize LBJ to escalate the war in Vietnam?

Congress passed the "Gulf of Tonkin Resolution" in 1964 after receiving (ultimately questionable) reports of North Vietnamese attacks against US ships in the Gulf of Tonkin. This resolution authorized LBJ to take all necessary actions to protect American forces. This was interpreted as a "blank check" to escalate as much as necessary. Congress continued to fund LBJ's requests for military funding, too.

What were conscientious objectors?

People who opposed the war on moral or religious grounds could apply to be recognized as conscientious objectors. This permitted them to avoid military service in Vietnam.

How did the Vietnam War finally end?

Although the US withdrew its troops in 1973, the war continued until 1975, when North Vietnam finally conquered South Vietnam. The failure of South Vietnam to endure (unlike South Korea) leads most Americans to conclude that this war was lost.

What were fighting conditions like for American soldiers in Vietnam?

The terrain was incredibly hostile: hot, humid jungles populated by unfamiliar people with unknown loyalties. Ambushes and booby traps were far more common than head-on clashes, which the enemy tried to avoid because it voided their advantages.

How did many young men avoid military service?

There were many ways, legal or not, to avoid service through the draft. Illegal measures included fleeing the country (often to Canada), faking medical conditions, and so forth. Legal measures included getting a college deferment or registering as a conscientious objector.

Why did our country build the Vietnam War memorial so quickly after the war?

The overriding concern, beyond honoring the troops who served, was to help heal the divisions that had split our country.

How did the US first get involved in Vietnam?

We first committed financial resources to help our ally, France, suppress a rebellion in their colony. When France withdrew, we increased our involvement in order to contain communism.

Did the USA and USSR ever come close to a nuclear war?

The two countries probably never came closer to a nuclear exchange than they did during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

How did television reports from Vietnam influence public opinion?

Unlike the experience of previous wars, the US military did not heavily censor media coverage of the Vietnam War. Television cameras routinely broadcast violent, demoralizing stories about the war. Television reporters, including Walter Cronkite, shared their negative opinions more freely. The net effect of this coverage was to turn more Americans against the war.

What was the biggest turning point in the Vietnam War?

The Tet Offensive was probably the biggest turning point of the war. US authorities had been assuring the public that the enemy was nearly defeated and then the enemy launched their largest coordinated offensive of the war! Even though our forces won a tactical victory - the communist offensive failed to capture and hold territory or trigger a broader uprising in South Vietnam -more Americans lost faith in the government and concluded that the war would never end in victory.

How is the influence of the Vietnam War still felt today?

The Vietnam War has left several important legacies. The US has abandoned the military draft and now relies on an all-volunteer military. Realizing the injustice of recruiting soldiers who were ineligible to vote, we lowered the voting age to 18. In addition, our leaders are much less confident about projecting American military power around the world.

Was the Vietnam War worth fighting?

Most Americans have come to regard the Vietnam War as a mistake. About 58,000 men lost their lives (and many more were wounded) for a cause that many find undeserving of such sacrifice. The war cost an enormous amount of money that could have been spent on other priorities, and the war spending helped trigger a time of inflation and economic struggle. America's stature in the world was reduced because we seemed to lose to a weaker opponent.

On the other hand, some still believe Vietnam was a noble if ultimately unsuccessful endeavor. We went to the aid of an ally, demonstrating to our other allies that we were dependable. We helped to keep South Vietnam free of communism for many years, perhaps deterring communist aggression elsewhere. Containing communism, even temporarily, was worthwhile for those who oppose it. At the end of our military efforts in 1973, South Vietnam remained free, and if it fell just two years later, we should not bear the blame.