PSYC330 combined flashcards

Chemical name

Chemical name

Describes the chemical structure of a drug.

Generic name

Standardized name given to a drug.

Trade name

Name given by the pharmaceutical company that markets the drug.

Street name

Name used for a drug on the streets.

Drug dosage

Amount of drug to be taken at one time or over a specified period.

Routes of administration

Methods by which drugs are delivered into the body (e.g., oral, intravenous).

Therapeutic effect

Desired beneficial effect of a drug.

Side effect

Unintended effect of a drug that may be harmful or undesirable.

Toxic effect

Harmful effect resulting from excessive drug dosage.

Additive effect

When two drugs combined produce a greater effect than either alone.

Antagonistic effect

When one drug reduces or blocks the effect of another drug.

Potentiation

When one drug enhances the effect of another.

Pharmacokinetics

Study of how drugs are absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and eliminated by the body.

Passive diffusion

Movement of drugs from high to low concentration across cell membranes.

Facilitated diffusion

Drug movement across cell membranes with the help of a carrier protein.

Active transport

Requires energy to move drugs against a concentration gradient.

Absorption

Process by which a drug enters the bloodstream from its site of administration.

Distribution

Process by which a drug is carried throughout the body by the bloodstream.

Metabolism

Process of breaking down drugs in the body.

Excretion

Elimination of drugs from the body.

factors that influence drug metabolism

genetics, age, liver functions, drug interaction, diet and environment

How does the route of administration impact absorption of a drug?

• Oral: slower absorption due to digestive processes and first-pass metabolism in the liver.

• Intravenous: direct and immediate absorption into the blood stream

• intramuscular/subcutaneous: absorbed more slowly as the drug diffuses through tissues.

• Inhalation: rapid absorption through the lungs into the bloodstream.

Tolerance

Reduced response to a drug after repeated use.

Withdrawal

Symptoms that occur when a person dependent on a drug stops or reduces use.

drug events that occurred in early 20th century

Pavlovian conditioning & early behaviourism with researchers like Pavlov and Skinner laid groundwork to understanding behaviour and its modification through external stimuli

drug events that occurred in 1950s

development of chlorpromazine (Thorazine) for schizophrenia marked beginning of psychopharmacology, demonstrating drugs could alter behaviour & mental state.

drug events that occurred in 1960/70s

rise of behavioural pharmacology. Development of operant conditioning methods to study drug effects on behaviour. Peter Dews, Charles Schuster. as well as regulations and ethics regarding human and animal research.

operant conditioning

elevated plus maze

forced swim test

locomotor activity test

what is the formal procedure to get a drug approved for treatment of a human condition?

phase 1- test safety, dosage, side effects, determine max tolerance

phase 2- evaluate efficacy for larger group

phase 3- monitor side effects, compare with standard treatment

different ways tolerance can be developed?

• pharmacokinetics tolerance (metabolic)

• pharmacodynamic tolerance (cellular)

• behavioral tolerance

acute tolerance

decrease in response with a single dose

chronic tolerance

occurs after a longer time

cross tolerance

tolerance to one drug may result in tolerance to another in a similar family of drugs

reverse tolerance

increase in potency with increased exposure

factors that influence tolerance

frequency of use, dose, route of administration, genetic factors, environmental factors, physiological factors.

Opponent Process Theory

Theory suggesting the body strives for homeostasis, leading to compensatory responses.

Conditioned drug effects

Environmental cues associated with drug use that trigger anticipatory responses. not permanent, can be diminished overtime through extinction.

Classical conditioning

Learning process that plays a role in developing tolerance and withdrawal.

Placebo effect

Improvement in condition due to belief in treatment rather than the treatment itself.

Nocebo effect

Harmful effects associated with a harmless substance due to negative expectations.

Does someone need to be aware that they have received the drug for it to be effective?

awareness can play a role in the drug’s effectiveness, especially for drugs affecting perception or mood. In some cases, knowing that a drug has been administered can amplify its effects (e.g., pain relief). However, some drugs, particularly those that act on physiological processes independently of conscious experience (e.g., anaesthesia), can be effective even if the person is unaware of their administration

Neuron

Basic unit of the nervous system responsible for transmitting signals.

Resting potential

Electrical charge difference across a neuronal membrane when not transmitting a signal (-70mV).

Ion channel

Protein allowing specific ions to cross the cell membrane.

Action potential

Rapid change in voltage across a membrane when a neuron sends information.

All-or-none law

Neurons either fire action potentials at full strength or not at all.

Post synaptic potential (PSP)

Changes in membrane potential of the post-synaptic neuron.

Excitatory PSP (EPSP)

Makes the neuron more likely to fire an action potential.

Inhibitory PSP (IPSP)

Makes the neuron less likely to fire an action potential.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger released by neurons to transmit signals across a synapse.

Receptor

Protein on the surface of neurons that binds to neurotransmitters. different kinds include ionotropic & metabotropic.

Ionotropic receptors

Directly open ion channels for quick responses.

Metabotropic receptors

Activate second messengers for slower, longer-lasting effects.

Signalling cascade

Series of biochemical reactions triggered by a signal.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Comprises the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Nerves outside the CNS, connecting it to the body.

cerebrum

responsible for higher cognitive functioning

cerebellum

co-ordinates movement and balance

brainstem

controls basic life functions e.g., heart rate, breathing

Neurotransmission

Process of neurotransmitter release, binding, and termination.

steps of neurotransmission

1. Synthesis – neurotransmitters are produced in the neuron

2. Release – action potential triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.  

3. Binding – neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron

4. Termination – neurotransmitters are either degraded, taken back up into presynaptic neuron, or diffused away.

Agonists

Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters.

Antagonists

Drugs that block receptors.

basic types of neurotransmitters include?

• amino acids (glutamate, GABA)

• monoamines (norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin)

• peptides (endorphins)

• others (acetylcholine)

MRI

image brain structures, using strong magnetic fields and radio waves to generate detailed images.

Strengths: high spatial resolution, non-invasive, excellent for detecting structural abnormalities.

Weakness: does not provide functional information (brain activity), is expensive.

fMRI

measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

Strength: non-invasive, good spatial resolution

Weakness: poor temporal resolution

EEG

measures electrical activity

Strength: excellent temporal resolution

Weakness: poor spatial resolution

PET

measures metabolic activity

strength: can track specific neurotransmitters

weakness: involves radioactive tracers, expensive

What are the processes by which different types of drinkable alcohol are made?

• Beer – water, malted barley, hops, & yeast (fermentation)

• Spirits – (distillation)

Alcohol metabolism

Process of absorption, distribution, and conversion of alcohol in the body.

how is alcohol metabolised in the body?

1. Alcohol is absorbed into the bloodstream from the stomach and small intestine

2. Alcohol is distributed throughout the body, affecting various organs

3. Alcohol is converted into acetaldehyde by enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) in the liver. Acetaldehyde, a toxic substance, is further converted into acetate by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH). Acetate is broken down into water and CO2 which are excreted from the body (urine, breath, & sweat).

Disease model of alcoholism

Paradigm viewing alcoholism as a chronic, progressive disease (R.M.Jellinek)

Neurophysiological effects of alcohol

Alcohol acts as a depressant, affecting various neurotransmitter systems.

• CNS: alcohol acts as a depressant, slowing down brain activity and reducing inhibitions.

• GABA receptors: alcohol enhances the inhibitory effects of GABA, leading to sedation and relaxation.

• Glutamate receptors: alcohol inhibits the excitatory glutamate receptors, impairing cognitive and motor functions.

• Dopamine: alcohol increases dopamine release, leading to feelings of pleasure and reward.

• Serotonin: alcohol alter serotonin levels, affecting mood and behavior.

What are some important historical events in New Zealand that contributed to the current drinking culture?

• Colonial era (1800s)

• Temperance movement       

• Reform

Amphetamines

Synthetic drugs that stimulate the CNS by increasing dopamine and norepinephrine release.

What is ephedrine? What was it used for?

Natural derived from ephedra plant. Traditionally used in Chinese medicine (asthma & bronchitis).

Where does cocaine come from? How was it discovered? How was it received by the medical and scientific community originally?

Derived from coca plant (South America). Anaesthetic and stimulant properties

What are some of the factors that led to the banning of cocaine?

Addictive nature, social problems associated with use and drug abuse lead to banning in early 20^th century

What are the neurophysiological effects of cocaine?

Cocaine: blocks reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, & serotonin. Leads to accumulation of neurotransmitters in brain resulting in euphoria, increased energy, and heightened alertness.

What are the behavioural effects of stimulants? Do they have effects on cognitive processes?

Behavioural effects: increased PA, talkativeness, restlessness, reduced appetite

Cognitive effects: short-term improvements in attention, long-term leads to more problematic exec functioning

Opioids

Naturally derived or synthetic drugs that bind to opioid receptors for pain relief and euphoria.

What is the difference between opium, heroin, and morphine?

Opium is naturally occurring. Morphine is more powerful than opium, precursor to semi-synthetic opioids such as heroin. Heroin is a semi-synthetic drug derived from morphine

What are the opioid receptor types?

Mu (μ) Receptors: Responsible for the analgesic (pain-relieving) effects, euphoria, respiratory depression, and addiction potential. Most opioids, including morphine and heroin, primarily target these receptors.

Delta (δ) Receptors: Involved in analgesia and mood regulation but are less prominent in the effects of most common opioids.

Kappa (κ) Receptors: Linked to analgesia and dysphoria. Drugs that target these receptors are less likely to cause euphoria and are being studied for non-addictive pain relief.

what is the mechanisms of action for opioids?

Opioids bind to these receptors, inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters like GABA, which normally suppress the release of dopamine. This inhibition leads to an increase in dopamine levels in the brain's reward pathways, producing euphoria and reinforcing drug-taking behavior. Different opioids may have varying affinities for these receptors, leading to differences in potency, duration of action, and side effects.

What are the health risks and dangers of opioid abuse?

Overdose, addiction, tolerance, infection, chronic health issues.

What does opioid withdrawal look like?

• Early symptoms (anxiety, muscle aches, sweating, insomnia)

• later symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, rapid heart rate).

Where did tobacco originate?

Tobacco is native to the Americas and was used by Indigenous peoples for centuries before European contact. It was primarily used in religious and medicinal contexts.

How has opinion of it shifted over time? What are current consumption patterns globally?

late 15th century, tobacco was introduced to Europe, where it became popular for its stimulating effects. Smoking and other forms of consumption spread rapidly across Europe and beyond.

Shifts in Opinion: Initially praised for its medicinal properties, tobacco use became widespread despite growing concerns about health risks. By the mid-20th century, scientific evidence linking smoking to lung cancer and other diseases led to a significant shift in public opinion, with increased regulation, public health campaigns, and declining rates of smoking in many countries.

 Global Patterns: Tobacco use remains high, particularly in developing countries, despite global efforts to reduce smoking rates.

How is tobacco consumed?

Tobacco is consumed primarily by smoking cigarettes, cigars, and pipes. Other forms include chewing tobacco, snuff, and e-cigarettes (vaping).

What is the main psychoactive component of tobacco?

Nicotine

What are the different types of nicotinic receptors? What type of receptors are activated by nicotine?

Nicotine acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs)

What psychological processes are involved with nicotinic receptor function?  

Neurotransmitter Release: Nicotine stimulates neuronal type nAChRs, leading to the release of various neurotransmitters, including dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. This release affects mood, attention, and reward pathways.

Cognitive Enhancement: Nicotine has been shown to enhance attention, learning, and memory, likely due to its effects on neurotransmitter systems.

Mood Regulation: Nicotine’s effects on dopamine release contribute to its mood-enhancing properties, providing temporary relief from anxiety and stress.

Is nicotine addictive? What factors are involved in cigarette dependence?

Biological Factors: Genetic predispositions, the rate of nicotine metabolism, and individual differences in receptor sensitivity.

 Psychological Factors: Smoking habits are often reinforced by stress, anxiety, and social factors.

 Behavioural Factors: The ritualistic aspects of smoking, such as the hand-to-mouth action, also play a role in dependence.

What are the health risks of tobacco use?

Cancer, CVD, respiratory issues, others e.g., reduced fertility, pregnancy complications, weakened immune system

Opiate users often discuss intense euphoric positive experiences associated with using, whereas studies show that these positive feelings are soon replaced by negative feelings. Taking into account the findings of Lasagana et al. (1955), why might there be a disconnect between systematic findings and users' subjective experiences regarding opiates?

it is likely because effects depend on whether someone is a new or experienced user

The results of Lasagana et al. (1955) found that __ out of 20 new morphine users wanted to use again

2! Challenges the idea that morphine is instantly addicting - it doesn't produce an intense positive experience for new users!

Unlike _________ withdrawals, ________ withdrawals are NOT considered medically serious. 

alcohol, stimulant