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Linkage institutions

Channels (such as elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media) that connect individuals with the government and turn people's concerns into political issues.

Policy agenda

The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actively involved in politics at a given time.

Political issue

An issue that arises when people disagree about a problem and how to fix it.

Public policy

A choice that government makes in response to a political issue; a course of action taken with regard to some problem.

Pluralism

A theory of democracy emphasizing that many groups compete and counterbalance one another in the political marketplace, so no single group dominates.

Elitism

A theory of democracy contending that an upper-class elite holds the power and makes policy, regardless of the formal governmental organization.

John Locke

English philosopher whose ideas of "natural rights" (life, liberty, property) and the "social contract" heavily influenced the Declaration of Independence.

Alexis de Tocqueville

French writer who analyzed American democracy in the 1830s, noting the importance of individualism, equality, and civil associations (civil society).

Writ of habeas corpus

A court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody.

Bills of Attainder

A law that punishes a person accused of a crime without a trial or a fair hearing in court (prohibited by the Constitution).

Ex Post Facto Laws

A law that retroactively changes the legal consequences (or status) of actions that were committed, or relationships that existed, before the enactment of the law (prohibited by the Constitution).

Partisan gridlock

The result when rival parties control different parts of the government, causing a stalemate where difficulty passing laws occurs.

Declaration of Independence

The document approved by representatives of the American colonies in 1776 that stated their grievances against the British monarch and declared their independence.

Natural rights

Rights inherent in human beings, not dependent on governments, which include life, liberty, and property (central to John Locke's philosophy).

Baron de Montesquieu

Enlightenment thinker who advocated for the "separation of powers" into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny.

Unitary government

A way of organizing a nation so that all power resides in the central government.

Division of powers

The constitutional provisions by which governmental powers are divided between the national government and the states (Federalism).

Delegated powers

Powers specifically granted to the national government by the Constitution (also called enumerated powers).

Expressed powers

Powers directly stated in the Constitution.

Privileges and Immunities Clause

The provision of the Constitution according citizens of each state most of the privileges of citizens of other states.

Marble cake federalism

Also known as Cooperative Federalism; a system in which states and the national government share powers, policy assignments, and costs.

Federal mandate

A requirement the federal government imposes as a condition for receiving federal funds (or sometimes without funds).

Extradition

A legal process whereby an alleged criminal offender is surrendered by the officials of one state to officials of the state in which the crime is alleged to have been committed.

Grants-in-aid program

Federal money provided to states to implement public policy objectives.

Revenue sharing

A federal aid program (no longer in use) where federal tax money was distributed to state and local governments with few strings attached.

President Pro Tempore

A high-ranking senator of the majority party who presides over the US Senate in the absence of the Vice President.

Descriptive Representation

The idea that an elected body should mirror demographically the population it represents (e.g., race, gender, ethnicity).

Substantive Representation

The tendency of elected legislators to advocate on behalf of certain groups (e.g., the poor) regardless of their own personal demographics.

Logrolling

An arrangement in which two or more members of Congress agree in advance to support each other's bills.

Earmark

Funds that an appropriations bill designates for specific projects within a state or congressional district (often associated with pork-barrel legislation).

Casework

Activities of members of Congress that help constituents as individuals, particularly by cutting through bureaucratic red tape to get people what they think they have a right to get.

Whips

Party leaders who work with the majority or minority leader to count votes beforehand and lean on waverers whose votes are crucial to a bill favored by the party.

Minority Leader

The principal leader of the minority party in the House of Representatives or in the Senate.

Standing committee

Permanent committees in each house of Congress that handle bills in different policy areas.

Joint committee

Committees on a few subject-matter areas with membership drawn from both houses.

Conference committee

A committee formed when the Senate and the House pass a particular bill in different forms; party leadership appoints members from each house to iron out the differences and bring back a single bill.

Select committee

A temporary legislative committee established for a limited time period and for a special purpose (e.g., the Watergate investigation).

Mandatory spending

Spending on certain programs that is mandated, or required, by existing law (e.g., Social Security, Medicare).

Discretionary spending

Spending about which Congress is free to make choices; defense and non-defense spending that is appropriated annually.

Pork-barrel legislation

Legislation that gives tangible benefits to constituents in several districts or states in the hope of winning their votes in return.

Gridlock

The inability of the government to act because rival parties control different parts of the government.

Redistricting

The redrawing of congressional and other legislative district lines following the census, to accommodate population shifts and keep districts as equal as possible in population.

Gerrymandering

The drawing of legislative district boundaries to benefit a party, group, or incumbent.

Divided government

A situation in which one party controls the White House and another party controls one or both houses of Congress.

Partisanship

Strong allegiance to one's own political party, often leading to unwillingness to compromise with members of the opposing party.

Trustee

A model of representation where a member of Congress votes based on their own judgment and conscience, rather than strictly the views of their constituents.

Delegate

A model of representation where a member of Congress votes exactly according to the wishes of their constituents.

Politico

A model of representation that acts as a hybrid of the trustee and delegate models, depending on the issue.

Partisan ideology

A coherent set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and public purpose that is closely aligned with a specific political party.

Presidential Coattails

These occur when voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the president's party because they support the president.

Grass roots support

Support for a candidate or issue that comes from ordinary people/citizens rather than political parties or established organizations.

Electoral mandate

The perception that an election victory signals broad public support for the winner's proposed policies and agenda.

25th Amendment

Permits the vice president to become acting president if the vice president and the president's cabinet determine that the president is disabled; also outlines procedures for filling a vacancy in the vice presidency.

22nd Amendment

Limits presidents to two terms of office.

Signing statements

A written declaration that a president may make when signing a bill into law, often pointing out sections of the law they deem unconstitutional or plan not to enforce.

Veto message (Veto note)

A message from the president to Congress stating that he will not sign a bill it has passed; must be produced within 10 days of the bill's passage.

Executive orders

Regulations originating with the executive branch that have the force of law.

Bully pulpit

The president's use of his prestige and visibility to guide or enthuse the American public.

State of the Union address

An annual message to Congress in which the president proposes a legislative program.

Executive Privilege

The power to keep executive communications confidential, especially if they relate to national security.

Executive Agreement

An international agreement made by the president, without senatorial ratification, with the head of a foreign state.

Chief of Staff

The person who is named to direct the White House Office and advise the president.

Patronage

One of the key inducements used by party machines; a job, promotion, or contract is given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone.

Civil service

A system of hiring and promotion based on the merit principle and the desire to create a nonpartisan government service.

Spoils system

A system of public employment based on rewarding party loyalists and friends.

Merit principle

The idea that hiring should be based on entrance exams and promotion ratings to produce administration by people with talent and skill.

Command-and-control policy

The typical system of regulation whereby government tells business how to reach certain goals, checks that these commands are followed, and punishes offenders.

Incentive system

An alternative to command-and-control, with market-like strategies such as rewards used to manage public policy.

Deregulation

The lifting of government restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities.

Bureaucratic discretion

The authority of administrative actors to select among various responses to a given problem; discretion is greatest when routines, or standard operating procedures, do not fit a case.

Iron triangles

Also known as subgovernments; a mutually dependent, mutually advantageous relationship between bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees.

Issue networks

A network that includes policy experts, media pundits, congressional staff members, and interest groups who regularly debate an issue.

Executive departments

The 15 cabinet-level agencies of the federal government (e.g., State, Defense, Treasury) headed by secretaries.

Independent Executive Agencies

The government agencies not accounted for by cabinet departments, independent regulatory commissions, and government corporations (e.g., NASA, NSF).

Independent Regulatory Commissions

Government agencies with responsibility for making and enforcing rules to protect the public interest in some sector of the economy (e.g., FCC, SEC); meant to be insulated from politics.

Government Corporations

A government organization that provides a service that could be delivered by the private sector and typically charges for its services (e.g., US Postal Service).

Capture (Regulatory Capture)

The process by which regulatory agencies eventually come to be dominated by the very industries they were charged with regulating.

Stare decisis

A Latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand"; the principle that acts as a basis for legal decisions by relying on precedent.

Rule of Four

At least four justices of the Supreme Court must vote to consider a case before it can be heard.

Writ of Certiorari

An order by a higher court directing a lower court to send up a case for review.

Judicial activism

An approach to decision making in which judges sometimes make bold policy decisions, even charting new constitutional ground.

Judicial restraint

An approach to decision making in which judges play minimal policymaking roles and leave policy decisions to the legislatures.