PSCI Midterm 2

What is negative freedom?

Refers to the absence of external constraints on an individual, meaning one is free from interference by others or the government. For example, freedom of speech and movement are forms of negative freedom where the government doesn't impose restrictions.

What is Positive Freedom?

This emphasizes having the ability or capacity to act and realize one's potential. Positive freedom involves having access to resources or opportunities, such as education and healthcare, that enable individuals to fulfill their ambitions.

Why should there be limits on freedom?

• The presentation discusses the need for some limits on freedom to prevent harm to others and maintain order. While individual freedom is essential, certain behaviors (like murder or theft) are restricted to protect others. Moreover, regulations like seatbelt laws may be justified for the collective benefit (e.g., reducing medical costs for society).

• The balance between freedom and social order is a key concern, as too many restrictions may infringe on individual liberty, but insufficient regulation can lead to harm or chaos.

What is equality of rights?

Ensures that all people have the same legal and political rights, such as the right to vote and equal treatment before the law.

What is Equality of Opportunity?

Focuses on giving everyone the same chance to succeed, irrespective of their background. It doesn't guarantee equal outcomes but tries to remove barriers to opportunities.

What is equality of outcome?

Aims to reduce or eliminate differences in wealth, power, and resources, ensuring that everyone enjoys a similar standard of living. This form of equality is often controversial due to its implications for redistribution and fairness.

What is the argument for special preference for disadvantaged groups?

The argument for giving special preference (affirmative action) in education, employment, and political representation is based on addressing historical and systemic disadvantages faced by certain groups (such as women, ethnic minorities, or people with disabilities).

Supporters argue that affirmative action promotes diversity, helps overcome structural inequalities, and ensures fair representation.

Critics argue that such policies can create reverse discrimination, unfairly favoring some individuals based on group identity rather than merit.

What is direct democracy?

In this system, citizens directly participate in decision-making rather than electing representatives. While idealized by some, it's impractical for large, modern societies.

Liberal Representative Democracy?

The most common form today, where citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf, combined with a high level of individual freedom

What is Plebiscitary Democracy?

Involves mechanisms like referendums or initiatives, allowing citizens to vote directly on specific issues or laws.

What is deliberative democracy?

Focuses on decision-making through discussion and debate among free and equal citizens. The goal is to encourage reasoned deliberation rather than just voting on issues.

What is liberalism?

Emphasizes individual freedom and the inherent dignity of each person.

• Developed in response to absolute rulers and restrictions on freedoms.

• Advocates for the rule of law, limited government, and protection of individual rights. - Variations include classical liberalism (focused on limited government and free markets) and reform liberalism (which supports government intervention to ensure equality of opportunity).

What is conservatism?

• Values order, tradition, and stability within society.

• Views humans as inherently imperfect and emphasizes the need for laws and authority.

• Traditionally associated with the landowning aristocracy but has evolved to align more with free-market economics.

• The New Right is a contemporary form that combines free-market principles with traditional moral values.

What is socialism?

Emerged as a response to the inequalities of capitalism, emphasizing social ownership and cooperation.

• Views humans as social beings and critiques capitalism for its exploitative nature.

• Variations include democratic socialism (which advocates for democratic methods to achieve socialist goals) and Marxism (which calls for revolutionary change to establish a classless society).

What is fascism?

Combines aggressive nationalism with a belief in natural inequality and opposition to both liberal democracy and communism.

• Emphasizes loyalty to the nation-state and often involves authoritarian leadership.

• Fascism rejects Enlightenment ideals, viewing human motivation as rooted in emotion and ancestry rather than reason.It often promotes militarism and expansionist policies, seeking to unify the nation through a common identity and suppressing dissent.

What is the development and variation of liberalism?

evolved from classical liberalism, which focused on individual rights and limited government, to reform liberalism, which supports government intervention for social welfare.

What is the development and variation of conservatism?

shifted from its traditional roots in aristocracy to a focus on free-market principles and cultural conservatism, particularly in the New Right.

What is the development and variation of socialism?

diversified into various forms, including democratic socialism, which seeks to reform capitalism, and Marxism, which advocates for revolutionary change.

What is the development and variation of Fascism?

developed in the early 20th century, particularly in response to the perceived failures of liberal democracy and socialism, leading to totalitarian regimes in countries like Italy and Germany.

Application of "Left" and "Right" in Political Perspectives

The terms "left" and "right" originated from the seating arrangements in the French National Assembly after the Revolution, with the left representing progressive ideas and the right representing traditional authority. - In contemporary politics, the left is associated with social and economic equality, advocating for government intervention to achieve these goals, while the right often views inequality as a natural aspect of society and emphasizes individualism and limited government. - This binary classification can be misleading, as ideologies like communism (left) and fascism (right) can share authoritarian characteristics despite their differing views on equality.