Mastering the World of Psychology - Chapter 4

consciousness

everything of which we are aware at any given time-our thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions of the external environment

altered state of consciousness

change in awareness produced by sleep, meditation, hypnosis, or drugs

circadian rhythm

Within each 24 hour period, the regular fluctuation from high to low points of certain bodily functions and behaviors

suprachiasmatic nucleus

the bodies biological clock, a pair of tiny structures in the brain's hypothalamus that control the timing of circadian rhythms and signals the pineal gland to secret or suppress secretion of melatonin. The amount of melatonin released depends upon the amount of light perceived by the specialized photoreceptor cells on the retina.

subjective night

the time during a 24 hour period when the biological clock is telling a person to go to sleep

circadian theory of sleep

the theory that sleep evolved to keep humans out of harm's way during the night; also known as the evolutionary or adaptive theory

sleep cycle

a period of sleep lasting about 90 minutes and including one or more stages of NREM sleep, followed by REM sleep

restorative theory of sleep

the theory that the function of sleep is to restore body and mind

NREM (non-REM) sleep

Four sleep stages characterized by slow, regular respiration and heart rate, little body movement and blood pressure and brain activity that are at their 24-hour low points

sleep spindles

waves which appear in Stage Two that feature short periods of calm interrupted by brief flashes of intense activity

slow-wave sleep

deep sleep; associated with Stage 3 and Stage 4 sleep

Stage 4 sleep

The deepest stage of NREM sleep, characterized by EEG pattern of more than 50% delta waves

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

a type of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, paralysis, fast and irregular heart and respiration rates, increased brain-wave activity, and vivid dreams

REM rebound

The increased amount of REM sleep that occurs after REM deprivation

parasomnias

Sleep disturbances in which behaviors and physiological states that normally take place only in the waking state occur while a person is sleeping

dyssomnias

sleep disorders in which the timing, quantity, or quality of sleep is impaired

narcolepsy

an incurable sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and uncontrollable attacks of REM sleep

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by periods during sleep when breathing stops and the individual must awaken briefly in order to breathe

insomnia

a sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep by waking too early, or by sleep that is light, restless or of poor quality

REM dream

a type of dream occurring almost continuously during each REM period and having a storylike quality; typically more vivid, visual and emotional than NREM dreams

NREM dream

a type of dream occurring during NREM sleep that is typically less frequent and less memorable that REM dreams are

lucid dream

a dream that an individual is aware of dreaming and whose context the individual is often able to influence while that dream is in progress

manifest content

Freud's term for the content of a dream as recalled by the dreamer

latent content

Freud's term for the underlying meaning of a dream

cognitive theory of dreaming

the view that dreaming is thinking while asleep

activation-synthesis

the hypothesis that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of the random firing of brain cells during REM sleep

evolutionary theory of dreaming

the view that vivid REM dreams enable people to rehearse the skills needed to fend off threats and predators

meditation

a group of techniques that involve focusing attention on an object, a word, one's breathing or one's body movements in an effort to block out al distractions, to enhance well being and to achieve an altered state of consciousness

hypnosis

a procedure through which one person, the hypnotist, uses the power of suggestion to induce changes in thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, or behavior in another person , the subject

sociocognitive theory of hypnosis

a theory suggesting that the behavior of a hypnotized person is a function of that person's expectations about how subjects behave under hypnosis

neodissociation theory of hypnosis

a theory proposing that hypnosis induces a split, or dissociation, between two aspects of the control of consciousness: the planning function and the monitoring function

theory of dissociated control

the theory that hypnosis weakens the control that the executive function exerts over other subsystems of consciousness

psychoactive drug

any substance that alters mood, perception or thought; called a controlled substance if approved for medical use

nucleus accumbens

part of the brain's limbic system where a subjective sense of physical pleasure is brought abut by an increase in the availability of the neurotransmitter dopamine

substance abuse

continued use of a substance that affects an individual's work, education and social relationships

physical drug dependence

a compulsive pattern of drug use in which the user develops a drug tolerance coupled with unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug use is discontinued

drug tolerance

a condition in which the user becomes progressively less affected by the drug and must take increasingly larger doses to maintain the same effect or high

withdrawal symptoms

the physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a regularly used dug is discontinued and that terminate when the drug is taken again

psychological drug dependence

a craving or irresistible urge for a drug's pleasurable effects

depressants

a category of drugs that decrease activity in the central nervous system, slow down bodily functions and reduce sensitivity to outside stimulation; also called "downers". Alcohol, barbiturates, minor tranquilizers, narcotics

narcotics

a class of depressant drugs derived from the opium poppy that produce both pain relieving and calming effects

infants and young children

What age has the longest sleep times and the largest percentage of REM and slow-wave sleep?

age 6 to puberty

What age human sleeps best?

older adults

What age human typically have shorter total sleep time, more awakenings, and substantially less slow-wave sleep

sociocognitive , neodissociation, and dissociation

the 3 main theories proposed to explain hypnosis

beta waves

waves that predominate when we are fully awake

alpha waves

as we become drowsy, these waves began to appear

the first stage of sleep

when alpha waves outnumber beta waves we enter:

Stage one of sleep

irregular waves with occasional alpha waves

Stage Two of sleep

transition from light to deeper sleep; sleep spindles appear

Stage Three of sleep

deeper sleep, slow-wave sleep begins when 20% of brain waves are delta waves

illicit

denotes psychoactive drugs that are illegal

controlled substances

when psychoactive drugs, such as antidepressants, are approved for medical use

True

drugs affect our brains and behavior through their influence on neurotransmitters
True or False?

True

All kinds of physical pleasure have the same neurological basis
True or False?

accumbens

an increase in the availability of the neurotransmitter dopamine in a part of the brain's limbic system

Because the effect drugs have on the dopamine system is just the beginning of a cascade of effects that involve the brain's entire neurotransmitter system

Why, then, does the altered state associated with alcohol feel different from that associated with nicotine or marijuana?

Opiates

mimic the effects of the brain's own endorphins, chemicals that have pain-relieving properties and produce a feeling of well-being

Depressants

decrease activity in the central nervous system, slow down bodily functions, and reduce sensitivity to outside stimulation

Stimulants

mimic the effects of epinephrine, the neurotransmitter that triggers the sympathetic nervous system

The physical pleasure associated with drug-induced altered states of consciousness

What causes people to progress from substance use to substance abuse?

exhausted and depressed

withdrawal from stimulants leaves a person:

nervous and agitated

withdrawal from tranquilizers leaves a person:

attention and memory deficits, loss of the ability to accurately sense the passage of time, and declines in the capacity to plan and control behavior

addiction is associated with:

significant increases in blood pressure and in the velocity of blood flow in all four of the cerebral arteries

effects of caffeine withdrawal symptoms on the brain

Amphetamines

increase arousal, relieve fatigue, improve alertness, suppress the appetite, and give a rush of energy

Methamphetamine

(known as "crank" or "speed") comes in a smokable form ("ice"), which is highly addictive and can be fatal

Cocaine

a stimulant derived from coca leaves, can be sniffed as a white powder, injected intravenously, or smoked in the form of crack

heart palpitations, an irregular heartbeat, and heart attacks, and strokes

what happens in high doses of cocaine?

nasal septum and in the palate

Chronic cocaine use can also result in holes in the:

Crack

the most dangerous form of cocaine, can produce a powerful dependency in several weeks

likely to progress to crack

Users who begin with cocaine in powder form are:

continue using it exclusively

users who start on crack are more likely to:

Narcotics

derived from the opium poppy and produce both pain-relieving and calming effects

Minor tranquilizers

sold under the brand names Valium, Librium, Dalmane, and Xanax

Heroin

highly addictive narcotic derived from morphine

6-24 hrs after use

When does heroin withdrawal symptoms begin?

hallucinogens

drugs that can alter and distort perceptions of time and space, alter mood, and produce feelings of unreality

THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)

the ingredient in marijuana that produces the high

Marijuana

impairs attention and coordination and slows reaction time, and these effects make operating complex machinery such as an automobile dangerous, even after the feeling of intoxication has passed

Many of the receptors for THC are in the hippocampus

Why does marijuana affect memory?

10-12 hrs

how long does the average LSD trip last?

-Caffeine
-Nicotine
-Amphetamines
-Cocaine

Psychoactive Drug Stimulants

-Alcohols
-Barbiturates
-Tranquilizers
-Narcotics

Depressants

-Marijuana
-LSD
-MDMA(Ecstasy)

Hallucinogens

flashbacks

brief recurrences of previous trips that occur suddenly and without warning

hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD)

the visual cortex becomes highly stimulated whenever the individuals shut their eyes, causing them to experience chronic visual hallucinations whenever they try to sleep

Designer Drugs

specially formulated to mimic the pleasurable effects of hallucinogenic stimulants such as mescaline without, supposedly, their negative side effects

Ecstasy

the best known of the designer drugs

Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)

known to impair a variety of cognitive functions, including memory, sustained attention, analytical thinking, and self-control

planning function

carries out the suggestions of the hypnotist and remains a part of the subject's conscious awareness

monitoring function

monitors or observes everything that happens to the subject, but without his or her conscious awareness

the hidden observer

the monitoring function, when separated from conscious awareness

William James

likened consciousness to a flowing stream (the stream of consciousness) that seems to be under our control at some times but not at others

Sigmund Freud

emphasized the notion that unconscious wishes, thoughts, and feelings are hidden from consciousness because they evoke too much anxiety

John Watson

urged psychologists to abandon the study of consciousness, claiming that it could not be studied scientifically

slurred speech, poor coordination, staggering

symptoms of drunkness

barbiturates

can act as an anesthetic, sedative, or sleeping pill