GRADE 11 EXAM REVIEW

basically everything

Bolus

A term used to describe food after it has been chewed, mixed with saliva, and swallowed.

Amylase

Enzyme in saliva that breaks the chemical bonds in starches

Mechanical digestion

Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces

Chemical digestion

Process by which enzymes break down food into small molecules that the body can use

Pharynx

throat; passageway for food to the esophagus and air to the larynx

Esophagus

A muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach.

Peristalsis

Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.

Sphincter

Ring-like muscle that tightly constricts the opening of a passageway in the digestive system.

Gastric juice

A digestive fluid secreted by the stomach.

Gastrin

Hormone secreted in the stomach that stimulates secretion of gastric juice.

Liver

Accessory digestive organ that produces bile.

Gallbladder

Stores bile

Bile

A substance produced by the liver that breaks up fat particles.

Pancreas

Regulates the level of sugar in the blood and secretes pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes.

Duodenum

First part of small intestines, most digestion takes place here using chemicals released from liver, gall bladder, and pancreas

Pepsin

An enzyme present in gastric juice that begins the break down of proteins

Trypsin

An enzyme from the pancreas that digests proteins in the small intestine

Lipase

Pancreatic enzyme necessary to digest fats

Large intestine

The last section of the digestive system, where water is absorbed from food and the remaining material is eliminated from the body

Rectum

A short tube at the end of the large intestine where waste material is compressed into a solid form before being eliminated

Egestion

Removal of undigested waste

Ingestion

Taking in food

Emesis

The act of vomiting

Nausea

Unpleasant sensation in the stomach associated with a tendency to vomit

Diahrrea

Frequent passage of loose, watery stools

Acid reflux

A condition in which acidic gastric fluid is regurgitated into the esophagus, causing heartburn.

Microvilli

Projections of the small intestine that increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients.

Nutrients

Substances in food that your body needs to grow, to repair itself, and to supply you with energy

Larynx

Voice box; passageway for air moving from pharynx to trachea; contains vocal cords

Epiglottis

A flap of cartilage that covers the windpipe while swallowing

Alveoli

Terminal air sacs that constitute the gas exchange surface of the lungs.

Spirometer

An instrument used to measure respiratory volumes

Diaphragm

Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing

Intercostal muscles

Muscles which move the rib cage during breathing

Ventilation

Movement of air in and out of the lungs; breathing

Aerobic cellular respiration

The process by which cells use oxygen and glucose to obtain usable energy (ATP).

Vital capacity

The total volume of air that can be exhaled after maximal inhalation.

Tidal volume

Amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs during a normal breath

Residual volume

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation

Total lung capacity

vital capacity + residual volume

Inspiratory reserve volume

Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation

Hemophilia

An X-linked recessive disorder in which blood fails to clot properly, leading to excessive bleeding if injured.

Leukemia

Cancer of white blood cells

Anemia

Lack of a normal number of red blood cells, often resulting from a lack of iron.

Hemoglobin

An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that binds oxygen.

Veins

Blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart

Arteries

Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart

Capillaries

Any of the fine branching blood vessels that form a network between the arterioles and venules.

Aorta

Largest artery in the body

Pulmonary arteries

Carry deoxygenated blood out of the right ventricle and into the lungs

Atria

Upper chambers of the heart that receive blood

Ventricles

The two lower chambers of the heart, and they pump blood out to the lungs and body.

Septum

Divides the right and left chambers of the heart

SA node

The pacemaker of the heart, located in the right atrium.

AV node

Relays electrical impulses from atria into ventricles

Semilunar valves

Pulmonary and aortic valves located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery and between the left ventricle and the aorta

Tricuspid valve

Valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle

Bicuspid valve (mitral valve)

Valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle.

Systolic pressure

Blood pressure in the arteries during contraction of the ventricles.

Diastolic pressure

Occurs when the ventricles are relaxed; the lowest pressure against the walls of an artery

Sphygmomanometer

Instrument to measure blood pressure

Hypertension

Abnormally high blood pressure

Vasodilation

A widening of the diameter of a blood vessel.

Vasoconstriction

The constriction of blood vessels, which increases blood pressure.

Pus

A fluid created by infection.

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells, carry oxygen

Plasma

Acellular, fluid portion of blood

Leukocytes

White blood cells, fight infection

Platelets

Cellular component of blood that aids in blood clotting

Purkinje fibers

Fibers in the ventricles that transmit impulses to the right and left ventricles, causing them to contract

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection. The "Father of Evolution".

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

He proposed that by selective use or disuse of organs, organisms could acquire or lose certain traits which are then passed on to their children and future generations, eventually changing the species.

On the Origin of Species (1859)

The book written by Charles Darwin that set forth the theory that higher life forms had evolved through random mutation and adaptation

Natural selection

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Sympatric speciation

The evolution of new species within a large geographic area with no distinct barrier to gene flow.

Fossil record

Chronological collection of life's remains in sedimentary rock layers.

Transitional fossils

Fossils that show links in traits between groups of organisms used to document intermediate stages in the evolution of a species.

Tiktaalik

An intermediate fossil that shows both fish and amphibian characteristics.

Vestigial structure

Remnant of a structure that may have had an important function in a species' ancestors, but has no clear function in the modern species.

Homologous structures

Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.

Embryology

Study of embryos and their development

Artificial selection

Breeding organisms with specific traits in order to produce offspring with identical traits.

Directional selection

Form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve

Stabilizing selection

Natural selection that favours intermediate variants by acting against extreme phenotypes.

Disruptive selection

Form of natural selection in which a single curve splits into two; occurs when individuals at the upper and lower ends of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle

Genetic drift

A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection.

Genetic bottleneck

A sudden reduction in the number of alleles in a population.

Founder effect

Change in allele frequencies as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population

Behavioural adaptation

What an organism does to survive in the unique conditions of its environment

Structural adaptation

A physical feature of an organism's body having a specific function that contributes to the survival of the organism

Physiological adaptation

A physical or chemical event that occurs within the body of an organism and enables survival

Allopatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.

Macroevolution

Large-scale evolutionary changes that take place over long periods of time

Radiometric dating

Method used to determine the age of rocks using the rate of decay of radioactive isotopes

Relative dating

Method of determining the age of a fossil by comparing its placement with that of fossils in other layers of rock

Carl Linneaus

Scientist that developed our modern day classification system of giving organisms a two-part scientific name

Inheritance of acquired characteristics

Lamarckian belief that characteristics acquired during the lifetime of an organism can be passed on to offspring

Fitness

Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment

Antibiotic resistance

Resistance evolving rapidly in many species of prokaryotes due to overuse of antibiotics

Geographic isolation

Form of reproductive isolation in which two populations are separated physically by geographic barriers such as rivers, mountains, or stretches of water