Deck 1 — Learning, Memory & Cognition

What is learning?

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

Classical conditioning

Definition:
Learning through association between two stimuli.

Example:
A dog learns to salivate when hearing a bell because the bell has been repeatedly paired with food.

Who developed classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov.

Operant conditioning

Definition:
Learning through rewards and punishments.

Example:
A child cleans their room to earn allowance.

Who developed operant conditioning?

B.F. Skinner.

Classical vs Operant Conditioning

Classical
Association between TWO STIMULI.

Passive learner.

Bell → Food

↓

Salivation

Operant
Association between BEHAVIOR and CONSEQUENCE.

Active learner.

Behavior

↓

Reward or punishment

Positive reinforcement

Adds something pleasant to increase a behavior.

Example:
Student gets ice cream for earning an A.

Negative reinforcement

Removes something unpleasant to increase a behavior.

Example:
Buckling a seatbelt stops the annoying alarm.

Positive punishment

Adds something unpleasant to decrease a behavior.

Example:
Teacher gives detention.

Negative punishment

Removes something pleasant to decrease a behavior.

Example:
Parent takes away a phone after breaking curfew.

Continuous reinforcement

Reward after every correct behavior.

Fast learning.

Fast extinction.

Fixed ratio

Reward after a set number of responses.

Example:
Free coffee after 10 purchases.

Variable ratio

Reward after an unpredictable number of responses.

Example:
Slot machines

Fixed interval

Reward after a fixed amount of time.

Example:
Weekly paycheck.

Variable interval

Reward after varying time intervals.

Example:
Pop quizzes.

Which schedule is hardest to extinguish?

Variable ratio.

Observational learning

Learning by watching others.

Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment.

Modeling

Imitating another person's behavior.

Sensory memory

Very brief memory of sensory information.

Milliseconds to seconds.

Short-term memory

Temporary storage.

~7 ± 2 items

About 20–30 seconds.

Long-term memory

Relatively permanent storage.

Unlimited capacity.

Encoding vs Storage vs Retrieval

Encoding

Putting information into memory.

Storage

Keeping information.

Retrieval

Getting it back.

Encoding

Processing information into memory.

Retrieval

Accessing stored memories.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units.

Example:
Remembering 149217761945 instead of 1-4-9-2-1-7-7-6-1-9-4-5.

Mnemonic

Memory aid.

Example:
"Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally."

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information without thinking about meaning.

Elaborative rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge.

Produces stronger long-term memory

Explicit (declarative) memory

Conscious memory.

Facts.

Events.

Implicit memory

Unconscious memory.

Skills.

Habits.

Semantic memory

Facts.

Example:
Paris is the capital of France.

Episodic memory

Personal experiences.

Example:
Your 22nd birthday party.

Procedural memory

How to perform skills.

Example:
Riding a bike.

Decay theory

Memories fade because they are not used.

Interference theory

Memories interfere with one another.

Proactive interference

Old information interferes with learning new information.

Retroactive interference

New information interferes with old memories.

Phoneme vs Morpheme

Phoneme→ Sound.

Morpheme→ Meaning.

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth–2 years

Object permanence develops.

Preoperational Stage

2–7 years

Egocentrism

Symbolic thinking

Concrete Operational Stage

7–11 years

Logical thinking

Conservation

Formal Operational Stage

12+ years

Abstract reasoning.

Object permanence develops in which stage?

Sensorimotor.

Egocentrism develops in which stage?

Preoperational.

Conservation develops in which stage?

Concrete operational.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Tasks a learner cannot do alone but can accomplish with guidance.

Scaffolding

Temporary support from a more knowledgeable person that is gradually removed as the learner gains independence.

Trust vs Mistrust

Infancy.

Developing trust in caregivers.

Identity vs Role Confusion

Adolescence.

Developing a personal identity.

Intimacy vs Isolation

Young adulthood.

Forming close relationships.

Generativity vs Stagnation

Middle adulthood.

Contributing to society and future generations.

Integrity vs Despair

Late adulthood.

Reflecting on life with satisfaction or regret.

A child receives candy every time they finish homework. What type of conditioning is this?

Operant conditioning with positive reinforcement.

A person always buckles their seatbelt to stop the annoying beeping. What learning principle is demonstrated?

Negative reinforcement.

A gambler continues playing because wins occur unpredictably. Which reinforcement schedule is responsible?

Variable ratio.

After learning Spanish, a student struggles to remember previously learned Italian vocabulary. What type of interference is this?

Retroactive interference (new information interferes with old).

A patient can no longer remember facts but can still ride a bicycle. Which type of memory is preserved?

Procedural (implicit) memory.

A 5-year-old believes everyone sees the world exactly as they do. Which Piaget stage best explains this?

Preoperational stage (egocentrism).

A teacher first demonstrates how to solve a problem, then gradually lets the student complete more of it independently. Which concept is illustrated?

Scaffolding within the Zone of Proximal Development.