PAPER 3 - Political Developments in Latin America (1945-1980)

Juan Peron: Rise to Power and Legitimacy

• Part of the Grupo de Oficiales Unidos (GIU), which helped establish a military regime. He held many key positions, such as army secretary, war minister, and minister of labor. 

• Gained favor with workers by improving wages and social security benefits through the labor courts.

•  He became indispensable to labor movements and used this base to legitimize a political campaign 

• Founded the Labor Party in 1945 under a social justice platform. 

• Knew democratic legitimacy was essential to long-term power and positioned himself as a man of the people to gain support

Populist Leaders in Two Countries

Argentina and Brazil

Juan Peron: Ideology

• Justicialismo: A blend of nationalism, social justice, and economic independence 

• Populism: Used rhetoric, mass rallies, and nationalist symbolism to appeal to the public 

• Initially rejected democratic ideals but used them as a means to gain power 

• Attempted to portray himself as a unifier of all social classes (elite and poor) 

Juan Peron: Social Policies

• Justicialismo: A blend of nationalism, social justice, and economic independence 

• Populism: Used rhetoric, mass rallies, and nationalist symbolism to appeal to the public 

• Initially rejected democratic ideals but used them as a means to gain power 

• Attempted to portray himself as a unifier of all social classes (elite and poor)

Juan Peron: Economic Policies

• 5-Year Plan to promote economic independence and reduce foreign influence 

• Nationalized industries attempted to expand agriculture, which required expensive machinery imports 

• Nationalization of the Central Bank of Argentina, which designed policies that all banks in the country had to follow 

• State control of imports 

• Facedresulting economic struggles: inflation rose, wages froze, in the printing of money 

• Workers began to strike due to worsening economic conditions and wage stagnation

Juan Peron: Political Policies

• Initially promoted democratic participation but became increasingly authoritarian (1953-55) 

• Censored the press, limited university freedom, and suppressed student protests 

• Weakened opposition in Congress and filled judicial seats with Peronist loyalists 

• Withheld resources from non-loyal unions and businesses to maintain political control

Juan Peron: Economic Success

• Prioritized improving the lives of the working class without completely alienating the wealthy elite 

• Significantly improved workers' wages and invested in social welfare, which temporarily fueled a period of industrial growth 

• 5-Year Plan aimed for economic independence from foreign powers, promoting nationalization and reducing reliance on outside investors. 

Juan Peron: Social Success

• Massive support among the working and lower–middle classes by enacting labor laws, establishing social security, and creating labor courts

• Eva Peron played a crucial role in expanding his popularity, especially through her efforts to support women's suffrage

• Justicialism, which helps promote social justice and resonates deeply with the public 

Juan Peron: Political Success

• Democratically elected (1946)  and re-elected (1973), emphasizing his popularity 

• The ability to unite labor unions and appeal to Catholic values (early in his presidency) gave him broad-based legitimacy 

• Even after political exile and church opposition, he maintained enough support to return and win the presidency again in 1973

Juan Peron: Economic FAILS

• Emphasis on industrialization led to a decline in Argentina's traditional agricultural base

• Inflation surged due to excessive spending, frozen wages, and the printing of unbacked currency 

• His later attempts to revive agriculture required costly foreign machinery, undermining his nationalist stance and alienating key industrial supporters

Juan Peron: Social FAILS

• After Eva died in  1952, public morale declined, and Peron became more repressive and egotistical in leadership. 

• Anti-church stance and promotion of a “cult of Eva” strained relations with the Catholic Church 

• The government relied heavily on propaganda and censorship

Juan Peron: Political FAILS

• Administration was more authoritarian (1953-55). Peron censored the press, suppressed universities, and undermined democracy

• Opposition increased sharply, and workers began striking due to frozen wages and economic instability

• After his break with the Catholic Church and use of violent suppression (torture, secret police), led to widespread disillusionment and eventual overthrow and exile in 1955

The Treatment of Opposition

• Censorship of media and educational institutions 

• Use of secret police, torture, and imprisonment of political opponents 

• Cultivated a Cult of Personality around himself and Eva

• Rewrote textbooks to reflect Peronist ideology and suppress opposing voices

Middle Class with Juan Peron

Initially supported Peron, but grew disillusioned over time. While workers did see wage increases and social benefits, the middle class faced economic disadvantages, such as rent freezes. They opposed Peron's heavy-handed control over public life, including the expansion of the executive branch and the erosion of democratic institutions. Many middle-class intellectuals were disturbed by the rewriting of textbooks and the suppression of opposition in universities

Elite Landowners Class with Juan Peron

They resented Peron's interventionist policies, especially export taxes and price controls that reduced their profits. They opposed his land reforms, which favored urban workers at the expense of agricultural interests. They viewed him as someone who mismanaged the economy and undermined traditional sources of wealth. Peron’s populist rhetoric and redistributive policies alienated this group.

Catholic Church with Juan Peron

They were aligned with him in the beginning, but their relationship started to deteriorate when Peron attempted to separate Church and state. Peron's government removed religion from schools, legalized divorce, and limited the Church's influence in politics. In 1995, the Church excommunicated Peron, which severely damaged his moral authority among many Argentines.

Military with Juan Peron

•  Initially supportive but became increasingly critical of his authoritarianism, economic mismanagement, and conflict with the Church. 

• In September 1995, with Church and military backing, the army and navy launched a successful revolt, forcing Peron into exile.

Brazil & Getulio Vargas: Rise to Power and Legitimacy

• Came to power in 1930 after a coup ended the “milk and coffee” politics dominated by São Paulo and Minas Gerais

• Represented a shift from oligarchic rule to centralized leadership, appealing to both the gaucho (cowboy) and caudillo (military strongman) class

• Appointed state governors loyal to him and dissolved the old political structure

• Used clientelism to gain allies and neutralize military threats 

• The Constituent Assembly that created the new constitution was handpicked by Vargas, composed by its legitimacy 

• Initially ruled as a provisional leader, then consolidated power formally under Estado Novo in 1937

Getulio Vargas: Ideology

• Rejected liberal democracy, capitalism, and the multiparty system in favor of populist authoritarianism 

• Estado Novo (1937-1945) was a nationalist, centralized, and corporatist regime that borrowed elements from fascist leaders

• Blended elements of fascism with social reform, appealing to workers 

• Supported strong state control and intervention in politics and the economy 

• Used to be anti-communist but borrowed some pro-labor policies to secure popular support 

• Used propaganda to promote nationalism and legitimize his regime

Getulio Vargas: Social Policies

• Introduced labor reforms: minimum wage, 8-hour workday, weekly rest, and job security after 10 years 

• Created a national security system for workers 

• Policies aimed to gain the support of the urban working class and avoid leftist uprisings

• Used these reforms to mask authoritarian control with a populist image

Getulio Vargas: Economic Policies (1)

• Focused on Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) to reduce foreign dependency 

• Used high tariffs to protect domestic industries and encourage national production 

• Expanded industry after WW2, leading to improved employment and real wages

• ISI created a new industrialist class, which often aligned with nationalist ideals, but became unstable during economic crises

Getulio Vargas: Economic Policies (2)

• Industrialized in the 1930s

  1. Tariff on coffee exports & income tax

  2. Rise in industry and workers

  3. Centralized tax system 

  4. Improve purchasing power 

• Became close with the USA economically and joined the Allies in 1942

• Labor Code of 1943- Workers in factories and labor unions were controlled directly by the government

Getulio Vargas: Political Parties

• Established a strong central government with power over the states

• Dissolved political parties and suspended democratic processes under the Estado Novo 

• Suppressed opposition parties, especially communists, especially after 1947 

• Promoted corporatism: organizing society into state-controlled professional groups (labor unions) 

• Used state propaganda to maintain control and promote his image

Getulio Vargas: Successes

• Centralized Brazilian state, ending the regional oligarchic dominance 

• Modernized the economy through industrialization and nationalist economic policies

• Gained a strong populist support among urban workers through social reforms 

• Reestablished political relevance after 1946 by being democratically elected in 1950 

• Balanced authoritarianism with populism to maintain power over a long period

Getulio Vargas: Failures

• Legitimacy was constantly questioned due to how he rose and maintained power 

• Authoritarian methods contradicted his claims of reform and democracy 

• ISI, initially successful, but proved unsustainable in the long term and did not create a stable economic infrastructure 

• Alienated the military and elite classes, leading to his 1945 ousting and growing resistance in the 1950s 

• Despite nationalist rhetoric, his actual support base was fractured and dependent on propaganda and coercion

Getulio Vargas: Treatment of Opposition

• Ruthlessly suppressed dissent and political challengers 

• Used censorship and propaganda to control public opinion 

• The murder of journalist Carlos Lacerda by one of Vargas’s bodyguards showed how far he would go to eliminate critics 

• Banned the Communist Party in 1947, presenting leftist ideologies as threats during the Cold War 

• The opposition viewed him as a dictator despite his democratic appearance after 1950

Military Coup

Frequent military interventions undermined democratic institutions by forcibly removing elected leaders

Polarization

 Deep ideological divides between leftists (radical change) and rightists (conservative, anti-communist) created unstable political environments

Christian Democratic Parties

Attempted to provide a centrist alternative but struggled to gain lasting influence, showing the weakness of moderate, democratic solutions

Fidel Castro/Cuba

The success of his Marxist revolution in Cuba inspired radical leftists movements and increased fear among right-wing groups, contributing to political extremism and instability 

John F. Kennedy/USAID

The U.S. promoted democratic reforms through programs like USAID, but also supported coups and dictatorships when elected governments leaned left, undermining the legitimacy of democracy

Social Malaise

Widespread dissatisfaction, inequality, and disillusionment with democratic governments led to increased support for radical ideologies or authoritarian solutions

Leftist Movements

Many were fueled by popular frustration over poverty, inequality, and lack of reform under elected governments

Rightist Reactions

Fear of communist revolutions (Cuba’s) led conservative elites and military forces to justify authoritarian takeovers to preserve order

ISI

Aimed to reduce dependency on foreign goods and build domestic industry, but often led to inefficient economies, inflation, and inequality, creating economic dissatisfaction

Capitalism

Often favored elites and foreign investors, leading to resentment from the working class and rural poor

Socialism/Communism

Gained appeal as an alternative to capitalist systems, seen as exploitative

IMF

Countries reliant on IMF loans were often forced to adopt austerity measures, cutting social spending and worsening living conditions, which eroded trust in democratic governments 

Country that had a rise of a military dictatorship?

Chile

Reasons for Rise to Power (1)

• Deep political polarization in Chile during the 1960s and early 1970s created intense divisions between left-wing and right-wing factions.

• Eduardo Frei and the Christian Democratic Party (PDC) came to power in 1964, promoting moderate reform (e.g., “Chileanization” of the copper industry), but were unable to satisfy either extreme

Reasons for Rise to Power (2)

• Salvador Allende, leader of the leftist Popular Unity (UP) coalition and a known communist, was narrowly elected in 1970 in a three-way race, winning with only around 36% of the vote.

• Allende pursued radical Marxist policies, including nationalization of key industries (e.g., copper, banking), land redistribution, and educational reform (e.g., ENU), which alarmed conservatives, moderates, and the Catholic Church

Reasons for Rise to Power (3)

• Allende’s policies led to economic crisis, hyperinflation, food shortages, and growing unrest, sparking backlash from the middle class, business elite, and military.

• Shock groups (violent right-wing paramilitaries) clashed with leftist supporters, escalating political violence.

Reasons for Rise to Power (4)

• The U.S. (under Nixon and Kissinger) feared Chile becoming “another Cuba” and supported opposition to Allende through covert CIA operations and economic pressure (e.g., "make the economy scream").

• General Augusto Pinochet, appointed commander-in-chief by Allende in 1973, turned against him and led a military coup on September 11, 1973

• Allende died during the coup (officially suicide), and Pinochet emerged as the head of a new military junta that quickly consolidated power.

Pinochet: Economic Policies

• Controversial, but Chile’s economy thrived (U.S. helped)

• Chicago Boys: A Group of neoliberal economists trained at the University of Chicago under Milton Friedman. They implemented free-market capitalism, ending ISI policies

• Privatized state enterprises 

• Deregulation of industry and banking 

• Reduction of tariffs and opening to foreign trade 

• High unemployment and inequality in the short term 

• Long-term economic growth and foreign investment (Chilean Miracle) 

• Economic gains came with high social costs (poverty, weak labor protections)

Pinochet: Social Policies

• Censorship and Propaganda: Military government censored the press, controlled education, and suppressed dissent 

• Education (ENU dismantled): Allende’s secular Escuela Nacional Unificada was abolished for being anti-family and anti-Christian

• Women: Mother centers were used to rally women's support for Christian Democrats and later the regime. They resisted through groups like the Association of Relatives of the Disappeared 

• 1980 Constitution: Institutionalized military power and delayed return to democracy. It created the position of Senator for Life for Pinochet

Pinochet: Repression and Treatment of Opposition (1)

• State of Siege: Imposed martial laws, curfews, media blackouts, travel restrictions 

• DINA (Secret Police): Led by Manuel Contreras, who arrested, tortured, and executed political opponents. They collaborated in Operation Condor (a regional anti- Communist terror campaign) 

• Disappeared People: Over 4,000 killed, 100,000+ tortured or exiled. Villa Grimaldi became a notorious torture center

Pinochet: Repression and Treatment of Opposition (2)

• U.S. Training: Many officers trained at the School of the Americas, known for counterinsurgency and torture methods 

• International Condemnation: Human rights groups criticized Chile for extrajudicial killings and disappearances 

• Plebiscite and Transition to Democracy: 1988 plebiscite rejected Pinochet’s rule

• 1989 democratic elections were held, and Pinochet stepped down in 1990 but remained a powerful figure 

Guerrilla Movements in One Country

El Salvador

Origins of Guerrilla Movements in El Salvador

• El Salvador had deep economic and political inequality (milk and coffee politics)

• The Great Depression intensified inequality 

  1. Coffee prices collapsed, and plantations expanded into indigenous land, displacing communities 

  2. Many Ladinos (people of mixed indigenous and Spanish descent) became impoverished agricultural workers

Farbundo Marti

A Marxist who was executed in the 1930s, but became a martyr for future guerrilla groups seeking social justice

Failure of the Central American Common Market (CACM)

ISI failed to support the domestic industry and leading to economic dissatisfaction 

The government used extreme violence to suppress opposition, such as torture, imprisonment, and the murder of leftist group members.

Any priests and religious leaders who supported Liberation Theology were targeted.

Rise of Guerrilla Movements in El Salvador (1)

• Leftist groups turned violent and caused the government to respond by targeting anyone suspected of leftist sympathies, including clergy 

• The FLMN (Farabundo Marti National Liberation Front) emerged as a coalition of the 5 main leftist guerrilla groups to fight the military government 

Rise of Guerrilla Movements in El Salvador (2)

• U.S. Response: Pres. Reagan sent economic and military aid to the Salvadoran government. He viewed the FMLN as communist supporters because they accepted weapons from Cuba and had verbal support from Cuba's leader, Fidel Castro. He promoted KISSSS policy (Keep it simple, small, sustainable, and Salvadoran) to prop up the regime.

• France and Mexico believed the FMLN had good intentions and supported negotiation

Consequences of Guerrilla Movements in El Salvador

• Civil war from 1979-1992, leading to civilians suffering 

• Mass killings, disappearances, and economic destruction 

• Continued poverty and instability 

• UN helped negotiate peace talks in 1990 and included the creation of a new police force (including former guerrillas), removal of corrupt officials, and trials for human rights abuses 

• Long Term: Rise of Gangs (maras) in power after the war, as well as ongoing violence and lack of economic opportunity. Many Salvadorans fled & sought asylum in the U.S. 

Origins of Liberation Theology in Latin America

• 1960s, Gustavo Gutiérrez, in his seminal book Liberation Theology in 1971, introduced LT. He called for the commitment of Christian theology to have a more equal society. It was strengthened through raising consciousness in congregations that took action to make a change. 

•  LT is a movement in the Catholic Church that promotes self-liberation from poverty and injustice and emphasizes the Church’s need for social and political participation in eradicating injustice and caring for the poor.

• It empowered individuals to instigate change from the top instead of relying on Church leaders

Growth of Liberation Theology (1)

• First implemented in El Salvador, due to extreme inequality and state violence. It sought to empower the poor and oppose oppression. 

• Oscar Romero: Archbishop of El Salvador who denounced the government's oppression and was assassinated. He denounced violence and oppression and advocated for gospel-based justice. 

• Similar calls for social justice throughout L.A. as democracies gave way to dictatorships 

• Leonardo Boff: Brazilian theologian who supported LT and left the Franciscan order due to Church pressure

Growth of Liberation Theology (2)

• U.S. Response: Believed LT was aligned with Marxism and opposed it 

• Sandinistas of Nicaragua: Leftist rebels who overthrew Nicaragua's dictatorship and supported LT. A rift was created in the Nicaraguan Catholic Church because conservative clergy and reformers disagreed over political involvements during times of repression and inequality. 

• LT challenged the hierarchy and was controversial.

Impact of Liberation Theology

• LT empowered peasants and workers in L.A. because it gave them a central place in the Church and framed poverty eradication as a moral duty.

• The state of LT since 1989 has grown and spread through much of the Church, but it has become less Marxist and political.