ANP W1-4 Combined

What are the 2 unspecialized precursors (characteristics) to all tissue?

1. They can divide repeatedly

2. They can become specialized

(ex. Stem cells → can differentiate into a multitude of cells/tissues)

What are the 2 types of Stem cells? Define each.

1. Embryonic Stem cells

   • Found in early embryos

   • Source of all cells

   • Pluripotent → can differentiate into any cell type

2. Adult Stem Cells

   • Found in babies, children, adults as they remain after birth

   • Can differentiate into different cell types of their tissue of origin (ex. adult stem cell in bone can differentiate into the different types of cells found in bone tissue)

   • Assist with growth and repair

List the classification of Epithelial tissue: Shape and Layers

Shape → squamous, cuboidal, columnar

Layers → simple, stratified, pseudostratified, transitional

Give an example of simple and complex squamous epithelium.

Simple → Capillary walls (single layer)

Complex → Outer layer of skin (many layers)

Give an example of simple and complex cuboidal epithelium.

Simple → Tubules and ducts in kidney (single layer)

Complex → not common, some glands can have this. (many layers)

Give an example of simple and complex columnar epithelium.

Simple → Lining of stomach

Complex → uncommon; larynx and some ducts

Give an example of simple and complex pseudostratified epithelium

Simple → lining of respiratory passage (single layer)

Complex → none

Give an example of simple and complex transitional epithelium

Simple → none

Complex → lining of the urinary bladder (elastic, multi layered)

Most epithelial tissues secrete…? (4+1)

mucous, sweat, digestive juices, hormones, and/or other substances

What are the 2 types of glands? Describe each.

1. Exocrine glands → has a duct and empties its secretions directly to the location where secretion is to be used (ex. sweat glands)

2. Endocrine glands → NO DUCT. Secretions are deposited directly into the surrounding tissue to be absorbed by the bloodstream and carried to the target tissue. (ex. hormones from pituitary gland)

What are the 2 types of connective tissue? Describe each.

1. Circulating CT

   • Cells are in a liquid matrix (ex. blood or lymph)

   • located in blood and lymphatic vessels

2. Generalized CT

   • Denser connective tissue (ex. tendon, ligaments)

   • Widely distributed and not highly specialized

   • Subtypes: Structural CT (ex. bone and cartilage)

What are the 4 types of Generalized connective tissue?

1. Loose

2. Dense

3. Cartilage

4. Bone

Describe Loose connective tissue

Loose connective tissue, also known as areolar tissue, is a type of connective tissue characterized by a loose arrangement of fibers and a relatively large amount of ground substance.

• most widely distributed connective tissue in the body

• serves as a packing material, holding organs and tissues in place

Subtypes of Loose CT → Areolar space/tissue, Adipose Tissue (fat storage)

Describe Dense connective tissue

Dense connective tissue is characterized by its firm matrix, a high density of collagen fibers and some elastic fibers which provide protection, support, flexibility and attachment.

• two main subtypes: dense regular and dense irregular.

Irregular Dense CT is composed of ? and can be found in ?

• Mostly composed of collagen fibers in RANDOM arrangement

• Can be found covering various organs (fibrous membrane, organ capsule)

Regular Dense CT is composed of ? and can be found in ?

• Mostly composed of collagen fibers in PARALLEL alignment

• Can be pulled in one direction, stretch and return to its original shape (vocal cords, ligament, tendons)

Describe the 3 types of Cartilage

1. Hyaline → tough, translucent (covers ends of bones, in nose tip)

2. Fibrocartilage → firm, rigid (between vertebrae, some joints)

3. Elastic → high in elastic fibers, can stretch and return to original size (epiglottis, outer ear)

What are the 3 types of Muscle tissue? Describe each.

1. Skeletal Muscle

   • Voluntary control

   • Striated, multinucleated cells

2. Cardiac Muscle aka myocardium

   • Involuntary control

   • Striated, uninucleated cells

   • INTERCALATED DISKS connecting each cell together

3. Smooth Muscle aka Visceral muscle

   • Involuntary control

   • Not striated, single central nucleus

What are the 2 types of cells that make up Nervous tissue?

Neuron and Neuroglia (glial cells)

Draw and label the parts of a Neuron (nerve cell). What are the functions of each structure?

Dendrites → carries nerve impulse to nerve cell body

Axon → carries impulses away from the nerve cell body

Myelin sheath → protective layer around axon that also acts as insulation

A nerve is…?

A bundle of nerve fibers held together with connective tissue.

What are Neuroglia (glial cells?). What are its 3 main functions?

Specialized cells that support and protect nervous tissue. **does not transmit nerve impulses

fx:

1. Protect the brain from harmful substances

2. Get rid of foreign organisms and cellular debris

3. form myelin sheath around axons

What are 3 types of Epithelial Membrane? Describe each.

1. Serous membranes → is a bilayer, lines body cavities, covers internal organs

2. Mucous Membranes → lines tubes and ducts that open to the outside of body

3. Cutaneous Membrane → skin

Epithelial membranes are always composed of:

• outer layer → epithelium

• inner layer → CT

What is mesothelium?

Mesothelium is a simple squamous epithelium that forms the epithelial layer of serous membranes

• smooth and glistening tissue

What are the 2 layers of Serous membranes (its a bilayer)?

1. Parietal Layer → layer attached to the wall of a cavity or sac

2. Visceral serous layer → membrane attached to organs

What is the area between layers of serous membrane called?

Potential space

• it is not always present → present during infections

What are 3 types of Serous membranes?

1. Pleura → serous membrane lining the lungs and chest cavity

   • Parietal layer is touching the thoracic cavity;

   • Visceral layer is covering the lung

2. Serous Pericardium → lines the heart and pericardial sac

   • Parietal → lines pericardial sac

   • Visceral → covers the heart

3. Peritoneum → lines the abdomen

   • Parietal → lines abdominal cavity wall

   • Visceral → covers the abdominal organs

Mucous membranes can vary in structure and function. What are 3 examples of their fx?

1. Trap and remove foreign particles → helps ciliated cells in nasal cavity

2. Protect deeper tissue → membrane lining the stomach

3. Absorb food material → digestive tract

Connective Tissue Membranes are only composed of CT, and no epithelium.

• What are 4 types of connective tissue membranes?

1. Synovial membranes (lining joint cavities)

2. Meninges (covers brain and spinal cord; several layers)

3. Fascia → superficial and deep (supports organs and holds them in place)

4. Membranes that surrounds organs → fibrous pericardium, periosteum, perichondrium

How do membranes play a part in the disease process?

• Membranes can become inflamed or infected

• Membranes can act as pathways for diseases to spread into the body

• Frequently involved in autoimmune disorders (ex. rheumatoid arthritis)

Benign tumours are generally considered harmless unless they…

increase to a size, or is in a location where it compresses vital tissues/nerves/organs.

Benign tumours are often encapsulated and do not invade other tissues or spread.

Malignant tumours are classified by their tissues of origin. What would be the type of cancer that originates from the epithelium? connective tissue?

Carcinoma → most common cancer originating from epithelium (can be a epithelial layer of some organ)

Sarcoma → cancer originating from connective tissue; can be found anywhere in the body (bone, muscle, fat, nervous tissue)

What are the types of diagnostic imaging that can be used to diagnose Cancer?

• Radiography → xray, mammography

• Ultrasound

• Computed tomography (CT scan)

• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

• Positron emission tomography (PET)

How does Aging affect our Tissues?

As we age, CT looses elasticity because the collagen becomes less flexible. This can cause:

• Reduced capacity in vessels

• Posture and joint issues b/c of tendon and ligaments becoming stiff

• Bones become more brittle

• Muscles begin to atrophy and decrease in size

What are the 3 main functions of the Cell membrane?

1. Enclose cell contents

2. Regulates what enters and leaves the cell

3. Participates in many cell activities such as growth, reproduction, cell to cell communication/interaction

What are the 3 components of the Plasma membrane?

1. Phospholipid Biplayer

2. Cholesterol (adds strength and flexibility)

3. Proteins

The plasma membrane can have microvilli. What is its functions? where can it be found?

• Increases SA for greater absorption of materials.

• Found in kidneys and small intestines

What are the 6 types of proteins that can be found embedded in the cell membrane? List their functions.

1. Channels - pore allowing passage

2. Transporter - shuttles substances across membrane (in our out)

3. Receptors - cell to cell signalling

4. Enzymes - catalyst in chemical reactions that occur on surface of membrane

5. Linkers - gives structure and add stability to the membrane by linking to other proteins within the cell or attach to adjacent cells

6. Cell identity markers - Unique proteins to a persons cell → important for immune system

What is the Nucleolus? What is its function?

An area inside the nucleus also known as the little nucleus.

fx: ribosome production and assembly

Fx of Smooth and Rough ER

Smooth = lipid synthesis

Rough = manufacture proteins with the ribosomes studded into it

Fx of Golgi Apparatus?

Packages proteins, sorts and prepares them for export from cell or to other parts of the cell.

Fx of Lysosomes.

• Destroy old and damaged cells

• Destroys pathogens in phagocytosis

Fx of Centrioles

Rod-shaped organelle near the nucleus involved in cell division.

• helps form the spindle fibres needed during metaphase.

Fx of Peroxisomes? How are they different to Lysosomes.

• contains enzymes to destroy harmful substances

• active in disease prevention, active in metabolism

Lysosomes are primarily involved in cellular digestion and waste recycling, while peroxisomes focus on detoxification and breaking down fatty acids

The plasma membrane is selectively permeable. What factors determine whether the molecule can “freely” pass through?

1. Molecule size (small)

2. Solubility (lipid soluble only - hydrophobic molecules)

3. Electrical charge (non-polar)

What are the 3 types of In-active/Passive Transport?

1. Diffusion

2. Osmosis

3. Filtration

Define Diffusion

Type of Passive transport.

Movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration

• driven by a concentration gradient

Define Osmosis

Type of passive transport

The movement of water (or solvent molecules/liquid/other substances) from an area of low solute concentration through a semi-permeable membrane into an area of high solute concentration.

Define FIltration

Type of passive transport

Filtration moves WATER and dissolved substances DOWN a pressure gradient (often created by blood pressure) through a semi-permeable membrane.

Define Isotonic, Hypotonic and Hypertonic.

1. Isotonic - same solute concentration in and out of cell

2. Hypotonic - a solution that has a lower concentration of solute compared to the cell (low [solute] outside cell than inside cell] → water moves into the cell → cell may burst (lysis)

3. Hypertonic - higher solute concentration outside of the cell than inside the cell. → water moves out of the cell → cell crenates (shrinks)

Define Active Transport

Active transport is the movement of molecules against a concentration gradient (from low to high concentration) that requires energy (ATP).

Define Bulk Transport

Movement of large amounts of material through the plasma membrane using vesicles (aka vesicular transport).

• Requires energy.

What are 5 types of Bulk Transport? Define each.

1. Endocytosis → bulk movement of materials INTO cell

   1. Phagocytosis → Engulfing large particles by the cell membrane INTO the cell

   2. Pinocytosis → Droplets of fluid engulfed by the cell membrane (cell drinking)

   3. Receptor mediated Endocytosis → Intake of substances using specific binding sites on the plasma membrane

2. Exocytosis → bulk movement of materials OUT of the cell

What are nucleotides composed of?

Nitrogenous base, sugar (deoxy or oxy ribose) phosphate

DNA is double stranded. What type of bond holds the strands together?

weak Hydrogen Bonds

What are the 3 types of RNA. What are their fx?

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) → transcribes DNA and becomes a template of that DNA strand, carries it to ribosome

2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) → site of protein synthesis; translates the mRNA to make the protein

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) → carries the required amino acid to build the protein at the ribosome.

Describe the 2 steps of Protein synthesis

1. Transcription

   • Occurs in the nucleus

   • DNA uncoils and is transcribed into mRNA by nucleotide base pairing

2. Translation

   • Occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosome

   • mRNA leaves the nucleus and travels to the ribosome in cytoplasm

   • Ribosome and tRNA translate mRNA into protein amino acid sequence

     • tRNA carries specific amino acids t hat can be added to the protein chain at the ribosome

Which organelle coils, and folds the amino acid chain into a protein’s the proper shape?

Endoplasmic Reticulum

What are the 4 stages of Mitosis? What is interphase?

1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telophase and Cytokinesis

Interphase is when the cell is preparing to divide, DNA replicates. → “resting phase”

Describe what happens during Prophase.

• DNA coils into chromosomes

• Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear

• Centrioles move to opposite poles and form spindle

Describe what happens during Metaphase.

• Chromosomes line up at the center of the cell (metaphase plate)

• Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes

Describe what happens during Anaphase.

• Centromeres split (region connecting the sister chromatids)

• Spindle fibres pull chromosomes towards the opposite poles of the cell towards the centrioles

Describe what happens during Telophase.

• Chromosomes continue to move towards poles

• Nuclear membrane forms around chromosomes (on both ends of the cell)

• Plasma membrane pinches off in the middle (cytokinesis) to form 2 new identical daughter cells (46 xsomes).

What are 5 reasons that lead to cell damage/death?

1. Free radical injury

2. Enzyme injury

3. Gene mutation

4. Slowing cell activity (decreased metabolism)

5. Apoptosis (programmed cell death)

What are some risk factors for cancer?

1. Genetics

2. Carcinogens/Chemicals

3. Radiation

4. Diet → Poor nutrition, Obesity

5. Physical Inactivity

6. Viruses (HPV)

96% of the human body is composed of which 4 elements?

O, C, H, N

What are the 9 elements that make up 4% of the human body?

Ca, P, K, Na, Fe, S (sulfur), Cl, Mg, I

The number of bonds an anatom needs to fill its outer most energy level to become stable is…

Valence

Formula for # electrons in shell

2n²

n= shell number

Define Ionic bonds

Weak electrostatic bonds between oppositely charged ions.

• Electrons are donated/accepted

• Usually between metal and non-metal

What are electrolytes?

Compounds that separate into ions when put into a solution

Define covalent bond. What are the 2 types.

Form when two atoms share electrons to complete the energy level and thus become stable.

• Usually between non-metal and non-metal

2 Types:

1. Nonpolar - bond shared equally

2. Polar - bond shared unequally between atoms

What is the difference between mixtures and solutions?

Mixture: Substances maintain their individual identities

Solutions: Substance is dissolved into a liquid (solute into solvent).

What is the difference between suspensions and colloids?

Both are solutes that are NOT dissolved in solvent.

Suspension: Solute will settle down to the bottom when suspension is not constantly agitated (ex. RBC in blood plasma)

Colloid: Solute will NOT settle out of a colloid (ex. proteins in body body fluid, think emulsion)

What is an aqueous solution?

An aqueous solution is a solution where water acts as the solvent. In simpler terms, it's when a substance (the solute) dissolves in water.

Define Isotopes

Forms of an element that have the same atomic number but different atomic weight (due to different number of neutrons)

*may be stable or unstable (radioactive)

What are the 3 uses of radioactive isotopes?

Medical research, diagnosis, treatment

What are the 3 main types of organic compounds?

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins

What is the anatomical position?

standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward and thumbs out

Directional term: superior and inferior

above/below

Directional term: Anterior, ventral, posterior, dorsal

Anterior - towards front of the body

Ventral - Anterior surface of a surface

Posterior - towards the back of the body

Dorsal - Posterior surface of a structure

Directional term: Medial and Lateral

Medial: towards the midline

Lateral: away from the midline

Directional term: Proximal and Distal

Proximal: closer to the midline/trunk OR closer to the point of origin of a structure

Distal: away from the midline/trunk OR away from the point of origin of a structure

Directional term: Cranial and caudal

Cranial: closer to the skull

Caudal: closer to the bottom/tail end of the body

Planes of Division: Sagittal

Divides body in left and right parts

Plane is from front to back.

Planes of Division: Frontal (Coronal)

Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts

Plane is from left to right.

Planes of Division: Transverse (horizontal)

Divides the body into superior and inferior parts

Plane is horizontal, through the body

What are the 2 main subdivisions of the Dorsal cavity?

Cranial cavity and spinal cavity.

They are one continuous space

What are the two main subdivisions of the Ventral cavity? What is are they separated by?

Thoracic cavity and Abdominopelvic cavity

separated by the diaphragm

9 regions of the abdomen *see picture

4 quadrants of the abdomen *see picture

Name the 11 Systems of the body

integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive

What is part of the integumentary system?

skin, hair, nails, sweat and oil glands

What are the three types of muscle tissue?

skeletal, cardiac, smooth (found in walls of vessels and hollow organs

What are the major organs of the Endocrine system?

pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads (ovaries/testes)

Define homeostasis

maintenance of a stable internal environment

What is a negative feedback loop? What are the 3 components?

A negative feedback loop is a system where an increase in output leads to a decrease in the original input, essentially counteracting the change and promoting stability

3 Components: sensory, control centre, effector

What is a positive feedback loop?

A positive feedback loop is a process where a change in a system leads to further changes in the same direction, amplifying the initial change

What are the 2 types of metabolism?

catabolism and anabolism