MBB1 – Cognition and Learning

Cognition

Acquisition, organisation, use of knowledge

Perceptual-cognitive cycle

Integration of the perceptual present and the cognitive past

Learning

Set of biological, cognitive, and social processes through which individuals make meaning from their experiences —> changes in behaviour, abilities and knowledge

Sensitisation

Temporary state of heightened attention and responsivity that comes with sudden and surprising events

Habituation

The gradual diminishing of attention and responsivity that accompanies a persistent stimulus

Classical conditioning

Learning a predictive relationship between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and its unconditioned response, so that then eutral stimulus = conditioned stimulus --> conditioned response (conditioned reflex) on its own

CC phase 1

UCS + UCR = Reflex

CC phase 2

Presenting the NS before the UCS is repeated over several trials.

CC phase 3

The initially neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulusThe unconditioned response has become a conditioned response

Neutral Stimulus

stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

- Pavlov's bell

Unconditioned Stimulus

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

- Pavolv's food

Unconditioned Response

Unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

- Dog's salivation

Conditioned stimulus

A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

- Pavlov's bell after

Conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

- Dog's salivation

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response

stimulus discrimination

response to only the specific stimulus that has been conditioned

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response

Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Rapid reacquisition

After being extinguished, a CR can be re-learnt more rapidly

The Little Albert Study

Watson and Rayner (1920) - Shows that fears can be conditioned and unconditioned

- NS - white rat

- UCS - bang

- UCR - fear

- CS - white rat

- CR - fear

Operant conditioning

Behaviour is shaped by the learner's history of experiencing rewards and punishments for their actions.

Skinner Box

small animal chamber constructed by Skinner to allow sustained periods of conditioning to be administered and behaviours to be recorded unsupervised

Reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behaviour it follows

- can be positive or negative

+ reinforcement

receiving something pleasant

- reinforcement

something unpleasant will stop

Schedules of Reinforcement

Partial reinforcement leads to more persistent learning

Extinction of a reinforced behaviour

- occurs when reinforcement is withheld

- Not immediate

Shaping

using reinforcement to reward small stepstowards a desired response

Punishment

any consequence of a behaviour that makes that behaviour less likely to recur in future

+ punishment

An animal will stop producing a behaviour if the consequence is the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus.

- punishment

A pleasant stimulus that weakens behaviour when removed as a consequence of the behaviour

Three C's of Punishment

- Contingency - the relationship between the behaviour and the punisher must be clear

- Contiguity - the punisher must follow the behaviour swiftly

- Consistency - the punisher needs to occur for every occurrence of the behaviour

limitations of punishment

-Punishment often only produces temporary suppression.

-Does not teach more desirable behaviour

-Children who are physically punished often model or imitate punishment in the future.

-Punishment doesn't teach new behaviour.

antecedents

cue that signals the availability of a reinforcer.

Cognitive map

a mental representation of the physical features of the environment

Latent learning

Tolman - hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs

Observational learning

Albert Bandura - learning by observing others

Bandura - aggression

- 3 groups of 4 yr olds

- 1960s - demonstrated children's imitation of aggressive behaviour by observing an adult model

- 1 model positively reinforced -- given rewards

- 1 model positive punished -- scolded

- 1 group showed no reinforcement

- Knowledge remained latent in the model-punishedgroup until a reward was introduced.29

Memory

set of storage systems and processes for encoding, storing, and retrieving information

Memory systems: Multi-store model

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

- Memory consists of three "stores" - Sensory memory, Short-term memory, (working memory), long-term memory

Memory processes: encoding

attending to and acquiring information from experiences and mental processes

Memory processes: storage

Encoded representations are consolidated in memory traces and stored in networks of neurons throughout the brain

Memory process: retreival

"Remembering", "knowing" and "doing"

- Implicit/ explicit retrieval processes

Sensory memory

- visual sensory memory = iconic memory

- auditory sensory memory = echoic memory.

- large capacity, but short duration

- provides buffer between early sensory processes and later cognitive processes

Sperling (1960)

Measuring the capacity and duration of sensory memory

Array of letters flashed quickly on a screen

Participants asked to report as many as possible - found average of 4. reported

- partial report (when cued) allowed participants to recall each line of letters

Memory performance reduces to 1 item in....

500 milliseconds

What is Short Term memory

Our conscious representation of the present moment

- limited capacity - duration for 15-30 seconds

maintenance rehearsal

inner voice that mentally rehearses information until it is transferred to LTM.

Capacity of STM

3 or 4 items to 5 and 9 items

Measuring verbal STM capacity

Digit-span task

- 7 (+/- 2)

Duration of STM

Brown-Peterson task - measure the decay of the STM trace over time by filling the retention interval with a task that prevented verbal rehearsal of the letter names

Transfer to LTM: Primacy effect

good at retrieving the first items presented.

Transfer to LTM: Recency effect

good at retrieving the last items presented

Craik & Tulving (1975)

depth of processing model: three different levels of processing

Structural: word in capital letters?

Phonemic: word rhyme?

Sentence: would word fit the sentence?

Main finding: craik & Tulving (1975)

The deeper the encoding during study = richer connections with existing long term memory representations = increased likelihood of being able to retrieve the information later

Baddeley's multicomponent model

includes the central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer, explaining how information is processed and stored.

What is the digit span backwards a test of

phonological/verbal working memory -- must actively manipulate the information in memory

What is the visuo-spatial sketchpad for?

temporary store for visual/spatial information such as faces, objects, written words and cognitive maps

- allows for visual manipulation

What is the function of the Central Executive?

planning and coordinating complex behaviour

- direct attention

- goal orientation

- control social behaviour

What part of the brain controls complex behaviour/executive proccesses?

pre-frontal cortex

Where is the phonological loop network?

left-hemisphere fronto-temporal lobe

Where is the visuo-spatial sketchpad network?

right occipital-parietal network

Where is the episodic buffer?

parietal cortex

What are the two divisions of long term memory?

declarative (explicit) and non declarative (implicit)

What is declarative memory?

Knowing what, why, where, and when"•

Facts, events, locations, autobiographical knowledge

What is non-declarative memory?

skills and habits - expressed in behaviour

What can declarative memory be divided into?

Tulving - episodic and semantic

Episodic memory

when/where

Semantic

what/why

What are the subdivisions of Non-declarative memory

Procedural memory

Priming (e.g nurse proceeds doctor identification)

Associative learning - classical/operant

Non-associative learning - habituation, sensitisation

What is retrograde amnesia?

inability to recall previously encoded information - oldest memories are less susceptible to memory loss

What is anterograde amnesia?

Inability to encode new memories

The case of H.M

Epileptic surgery that removed the hippocampus of the brain that left him unable to encode info into LTM

- normal STM

Consolidation

the process by which memories become stable in the brain

What type of learning are Anterograde amnesiacs capable of?

procedural learning (learning new motor skills)