Foundations of Language Learning

Pre-speech stage (0-6 months)

Babies may produce what are called comfort signs (grunts and sighs) while paying attention to spoken language and beginning to distinguish phonemes.

Babbling Stage (6-8 months)

Babies begin to babble or produce rhythmic sounds with syllable-like stops, often with repeated patterns.

One-Word Stage (10-18 months)

Children produce their first words, usually in reference to people, objects, or actions that produce desired outcomes.

Two word or Telegraphic Stage (18-24 months)

Children produce two-word phrases using lexical rather than functional or grammatical morphemes.

Multi-Word Stage (30 months)

Children speak in complete sentences, adding functional and grammatical elements, though often making errors.

Silent Period (Preproduction Stage)

The learner knows around 500 words but is uncomfortable speaking. Teachers should allow students to build receptive skills while gaining confidence.

Private Speech (Early Production Stage)

The learner creates one- and two-word phrases using 1,000 words. The teachers should pose questions that allow abbreviated answers and scaffold their instruction.

Lexical Chunks (Speech Emergence)

The learner uses 3,000 words to form short phrases and sentences with frequent grammatical errors. The students can conduct short conversations with peers and read beginning stories.

Formulaic Speech (Intermediate Language Proficiency)

The learner uses 6,000 words to make complex sentences, state opinions, and share thoughts. Learners can study content subjects in English. Teachers may shift the instructional focus to writing.

Experimental or Simplified Speech (Advanced Language Proficiency)

The learner approaches fluency and can make generalizations about grammar and semantics. The learner may exit the ESL program but continue to receive assistance with writing and in the content areas.

Simultaneous Bilingualism

Occurs when a child is raised bilingually from birth or is introduced to the second language before the age of three.

Sequential Bilingualism

This occurs when a child obtains fluency in a second language after the first language is well established, usually around the age of three.

Code-Switching

Speakers switch from one language to another in the same conversation, often in the same sentence.

Language Transfer/Interference

The influence of a native language on a learners ability to learn a new language.

Contrastive Analysis

The comparison of two languages to identify similarities and differences.

Separate Underlying Proficiency (SUP)

Theorizes that each language a person uses is processed and stored separately in the brain, thus there is no positive transfer between the two.

Memorization Strategies

Techniques used to remember and retrieve information. Repetition and formulaic expressions are examples.

Cognitive Strategies

Strategies, such as analyzing or drawing conclusions, that allow students to manipulate the target language.

Elaboration

Connecting information to what is already known. An example would be connecting something to an analogy or usage in a phrase.

Compensation Strategies

Strategies used when students lack vocabulary in L2. Code-switching, or the insertion of L1 into L2 utterances, is an example.

Metacognitive Strategies

Strategies used by students to improve their learning habits. Self-monitoring is one example, and planning is another.

Affective Strategies

Strategies students use to control their own emotions. Both appeals for assistance and requests for clarification might be examples of effective strategies as students seek reassurance or reinforcement of what they already know.

Social Strategies

Strategies students use to employ language in social settings. Role-playing is one example. Requests for clarification could be another as students often ask for clarification as a way of continuing a conversation.

Cognitive Load

The number of unfamiliar or unpracticed concepts presented in a lesson.

Cultural Load

The untaught assumed cultural references embedded in a lesson may present impediments to an ELL.

Language Load

The degree to which the lesson language is unfamiliar and stretches a student beyond the range of comprehensible input.

Learning Load

The extent to which the classroom learning activity is unfamiliar or stressful to the ELL.

Common Underlying Proficiency Model

Hypothesizes that all language learning draws upon a common core of cognitive-linguistic knowledge rather than knowledge segregated in the brain by language.

Critical Period Hypothesis

Argues that, due to brain development, there is an optimal age for learning a language (roughly from age 2 to puberty) and that a person’s ability to learn languages declines over time.

IDEA

Individuals with disabilities education act.

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

That specifies among other things, the program accommodations, testing modifications, and counseling the child will receive.

Instrumentally Motivated

Learning English to achieve a specific goal, such as getting a job or going to college.

Integrative Motivation

Positive view of their future L2 community and wish to fully join it.

Extrinsic Motivation

Focus on rewards or punishments.

Intrinsic Motivation

It exists when an individual wants to do something for the sake of it without concern for reward and punishment.

Learning Domains

Cognitive (thinking), sensory (doing), and affective (feeling).

Processes that lead to student growth

1. Receiving: A passive condition that is necessary for learning but which does not by itself add value.

2. Responding: A student is attentive to learning and responds with positive emotion.

3. Valuing: A student develops preferences and commitments.

4. Organization: A student develops a value system, combining elements to create a logical relational framework.

5. Characterizing: The student internalizes what he or she has learned and acts in principled ways according to this knowledge.