unit 4 learning & (34-36)

learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

habituation

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

classical conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

neutral stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response (UR)

conditioned response (CR)

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences (rewards) become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers (rewards) guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Example- teaching a pigeon to turn in a circle.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need -example food or drink.

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer- example - money or praise.

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses - example: For every yard you mow, you get 40 dollars.

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Example - Buying lotto tickets to win the Power Ball jackpot!

fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed - Example: You get paid an allowance of 20 dollars each week.

variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals Example: text messages from your friends.

punishment

An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

learned helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate.

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Edward Toleman

He developed Cognitive Theory of Learning/Cognitive Mapping Three rat experiment - running through mazes.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats.

John Watson

Early behaviorist; did research with classical conditioning, famous for the "Little Albert" experiments on fear conditioning.

Wolfgang Kohler

The researcher who studied insight learning in chimps.

Edward Thorndike

Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered that rewards promote learning - Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes. Discovered the Law of Effect.

Albert Bandura

researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment

Premack Principle

The concept, developed by David Premack, that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity. Example - if you eat your peas, you can have chocolate ice cream.

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian psychologist that is known as the Father of Classical Conditioning. Best known for his research of training dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Cognition

the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is a set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the order

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs.

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

linguistic determination

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think