Studied by 19 people
between-participant design
control group
A group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment being tested. It is used as a baseline to compare the effects of the treatment on the experimental group.
within-participants design
manipulating the independent variable within each participant to minimize the effect of participant differences
population (in a study of university students)
all undergraduate students
sample (in a study of university students)
subset of undergraduate students selected from population
- reflect population so results can be generalized
random sample (in a study of university students)
people selected at random to become more representative (random assignment is necessary)
placebo effect
situation where individual exhibits a response to a treatment that is not due to its real therapeutic effects
participant bias
may intentionally or unintentionally change their results to be viewed favourably or react in predictable ways
blinding
don't know which treatment they are receiving
experimenter bias
actions made by the experimenter that influence the results
double-blind
neither group knows which is which
descriptive statistics
briefly summarize a given dataset (ex: pie chart)
histogram
shows the number of times group of values appear in a data set
mean
tells us the average value in a data set (outliers can skew this)
mode
value that appears most frequently
median
center value in the data set when arranged numerically
central tendencies
do not sufficiently summarize the data
inferential statistics
statistics that allow us to use results from samples to make inferences about overall, underlying populations
t-test
statistical test that considers each data point from both groups to calculate the probability that the two samples were drawn from the same population
p-value
probability (0-1) indicating the likelihood of this difference being observed even if no ‘real’ difference exists ; p=.06 (6%), p=.11 (11%), p=.5 (50%)
statistical significance
when the difference between two groups is due to some true difference between the properties of the two groups and not simply due to random variation
type 1 error (false alarm)
believing a difference when a difference does not exist (boy who called wolf); ineffective drug believed to be effective
type 2 error (miss)
failing to see a difference when a difference does not exist (fail to cry wolf even if one is attacking sheep); effective drug believed to be ineffective
r= +1
perfect positive correlation /
r = -1
perfect negative correlation \
classical conditioning
the learning of a contingency between a particular signal and a later event that are paired in time and/ or space
unconditioned stimulus
any stimulus or event that triggers a response naturally
unconditioned response
the response following a CS; occurs naturally prior to learning
conditioned stimulus
paired with the unconditioned stimulus to produce a contingency
conditioned response
the response that occurs once learning has happened
acquisition
the process by which a contingency between a CS and US is learned
extinction
the loss of the CR when the CS no longer predicts the US
spontaneous recovery
the sudden recovery of a conditional response following a rest period after extinction
stimulus generalization
the process by which stimuli similar to the CS will also elicit a CR (ex: bitten by a doberman as a child.. now scared of all dogs)
stimulus discrimination
restricts range of stimuli that can condition a response
implosive therapy
something envoking anxiety through imagination; someone with a germ phobia they will envision dirt on their hands as long as possible
systematic desensitization
someone with a germ phobia will cover their hands with confetti, then clay, and finally grime to face their fear
operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning)
the learning of contingency between a behaviour and consequence
reward training
presentation of positive reinforcer
punishment training
presentation of a negative reinforcer
omission training
removal of a positive reinforcer
autoshaping
learning without direct guidance; pigeon pecking key hole to get food; he will eventually accidentally learn
chaining
a technique used to develop a sequence of behaviours; each behaviour is reinforced with the opportunity to perform the next behaviour in a sequence
S+
contingency is valid
S-
contingency is invalid; when response does not lead to reinforcement
CS+ is not SD, why?
CS elicits involuntary response while SD sets the occasion for a voluntary response
ratio
responses; FR-10 is every 10th time
interval
time; FI - 1min is every minute
fixed
constant; 10 times or 10 minutes exactly
variable
random; VR - 10 must be an average of 10.. so 6, 14, 10, 12, 8, etc
definition of intelligence
perform cognitive tasks & learn from experience and adapt
deductive reasoning
ideas and general information → specific conclusion
inductive reasoning
specific facts and observations → general idea
reliability
repeated testing produces consistent results (test w random question from test bank)
validity
if the test actually measure what it is supposed to (is SAT valid in measuring intelligence rather than memorization)
wechsler adult intelligence scale & wechsler adult intelligence scale (for children)
IQ scores are standardized relative to population scores; verbal, mathematical, musical, spatial, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic
the flynn effect
mean score of raw iq scores have been on the rise since 1932; around the world, they are on the raise by 9-15 points every year
schema
mental framework for interpreting the world around us
assimilation
incorporating new information into existing schemas
accommodation
modifying existing schemas to fit information
piaget 0-2yr
object permanence
piaget 2-7yr
egocentrism, difficulty with seriation (random stick order), difficulty with conservation
7-12yr
no abstract thinking and reasoning
confirmation bias
tendency to seek out information that supports our hypothesis
heuristic
mental shortcut to solve problems
availability heuristic
tendency to make decisions based on information that is quickly available to us
representativeness heuristic
tendency to assume that what we are seeing is representative of the larger category we have in mind
the sapir-whorf hypothesis
language can help form thoughts; language influences our thoughts and the way we perceive the world; french uses the same word for stepmother and mother in law
morpheme
smallest unit of sound that contains information; often a word but some sounds can create words; table and cloth can stand alone but tablecloth is something else
phonemes
smallest unit of sound in speech (ex: dog (d)(o)(g))
syntax
the rules that govern how words in a sentence are put together (grammar); sentences can be syntactically correct without any semantic meaning
babbling
characterized by drawn out sounds made up of a variety of consonants
language explodes in complexity
between 1.5-6 yrs of age
universal phoneme sensitivity
ability of infants to discriminate between any sounds they are tested on
lack of social interaction leads to….
inability to develop language skills (EX: genie locked in a room her whole adolescent life and was not able to learn later in life)
overextension
characterize objects too broadly (ex: using doggie for all animals when learning what a dog is)
overregularization
a type of overextension (ex: i played → i runned)
underextension
too specific (ex: using the word duck for only a stuffed animal and not a real duck)
language acquisition device
an innate mechanism, present only in humans, that helps language develop rapidly according to universal rules
categorization
the process by which objects or ideas are recognized, understood, and differentiated by grouping based on some underlying criteria
classification
allows you to treat objects that appear differently as belonging together (ex: green, red, and yellow apples appear differently on color dimension, but they’re all categorized by apples)
exemplar theory
the theory that suggests we categorize new objects by comparing them to objects we have encountered in past experience
communication
the ability to describe complex ideas or objects using a single label (ex: the label ‘furniture’ easily describes a wide range of things
illusion of the expert
the perception that something is simple because we are good at it (ex: a math professor may assume that math is easy for everyone because it is easy for him)
prototype theory
categorize objects by comparing them to an internal “best” representation of a given category (ex: when viewing a new dog, you may compare it to a typical representation of a dog you’ve seen before)
understanding
ability to describe complex ideas or objects using a single label
development of categorization
children as young as 3 can generalize facts, if she knows her dog likes treats, it can be assumed other dogs do too
william james: concept of selection
act of attending to an object to select it apart from unattended objects (ex: when you put on your clothes you feel the texture, throughout the day, you dont anymore)
What underlying mechanisms drive attention?
automatic processes: involuntary “capture” (ex: when we hear sirens and automatically turn towards them)
controlled processes
conscious attention, slow and effortful (while driving and you pay more attention to traffic, turning, making a music choice, etc)
spotlight model
objects within a spotlight give faster reaction time and higher accuracy
cocktail party effect
separating conversation from those who are having convos around you
filter models are…
applied to auditory
dichotic listening paradigm
hear a message in both ears and repeat back what they heard in attended ear and unattended ear
breakthrough
participants remember unattended information (ex: if someones name is said in a crowd, even while not paying attention, it'll be captured)
stroop task
over 1k studies; state the colour of the font
stroop task: congruent
red being the colour red
stroop task: incongruent
blue being the colour green
proportion congruent manipulation
change the ratio of congruent or incongruent trials
Note 
Flashcard (22)