Chapter 13: Social Psychology

Social Psychology

The study of how social environments influence thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Types of attributions in Attribution Theory

Internal (dispositional) - traits or personality & External (situational) - environmental factors.

Internal (Dispositional)

a type of attribution theory where it centers on traits, personality

Example: “Jane is irresponsible.”

External (situational)

a type of attribution theory where it centers on the environment

Example: “Jane is stuck in traffic.”

Factors of Kelley’s Covariation Model of Attributions

It uses consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus to determine the type of attribution.

Consistency

a factory of Kelley’s Covariation Model

assessment: does the behavior happen repeatedly?

Distinctiveness

a factory of Kelley’s Covariation Model

assessment: does the person behave this way in other situations?

Consensus

a factory of Kelley’s Covariation Model

assessment: do others behave similarly?

Kelley’s Model of Attribution Patterns

High consistency + low distinctiveness + low consensus → Internal attribution

High consistency + high distinctiveness + high consensus → External attribution

Internal Attribution

Kelley’s Model of Attribution Pattern:

High consistency + low distinctiveness + low consensus

External Attribution

Kelley’s Model of Attribution Pattern:

High consistency + high distinctiveness + high consensus

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overestimate internal causes for others’ behavior.

Example: If someone doesn't reply to your text, you think they are ignoring you or being rude. If you forget to reply, it's because you were swamped with work.

Actor–Observer Bias

an attribution bias where the tendency to attribute one's own behavior to situational factors, while attributing others' behavior to their personality.

• Self → situational (external)

  • Ex. you did good in the class because the professor made it easy.

• Others → dispositional (internal)

  • Ex. you did good in the class because you studied hard.

Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute success to internal factors and failure to external factors.

• Success → internal

  • Ex. you studied hard for a test, therefore you got a good grade.

• Failure → external

  • Ex. you failed the exam, because you had a sick family and you had to take care of them and you weren't in the right head space to study.

• Can preserve self-esteem; we divert the claim to another outcome.

False Consensus Effect

The belief that everyone agrees with one's opinions or beliefs.

Example: if you love iced tea and you assume that the majority of your friends prefer it over water.

Components of impressions formation

Primacy effect and Confirmation bias.

Primacy Effect

an impression formation where first information shapes impressions strongly (especially negative).

Example: When you first meet Sarah, she is having a bad day, speaks bluntly, and makes poor eye contact. Because of the primacy effect, your brain heavily weights this first impression, and you form an early, lingering judgment that she is "rude and unfriendly."

Confirmation Bias

an impression formation where we notice info that supports our beliefs and ignore contradictory info.

Example: Weeks later, when Sarah sends a perfectly polite email, you interpret it as "condescending." When she skips an office lunch, you view it as proof she is "antisocial." You actively seek out and remember every detail that confirms your initial "unfriendly" belief, while entirely ignoring times she brought treats to the break room or helped a teammate.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Beliefs that influence actions, causing others to respond, reinforcing the original beliefs.

Example: feeling confident at a party leads to socializing.

Social Influence

The effect of others' behaviors on our thoughts and actions.

Social Norms

varies by culture:

• Individualistic (U.S., Canada)

• Collectivist (China, Japan)

Examples: stopping talking when professor begins lecture / students raise their hands to ask the instructor for permission to speak in class.

Conformity in social psychology

The act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms.

Findings of Solomon Asch's Line Study

35% conformed to wrong answers, and 75% conformed at least once.

His study demonstrated how peer pressure causes individuals to conform.

Characteristics of Groupthink

Overestimating the group, pressure for uniformity, and self-censorship.

Overestimating the group

a characteristic of groupthink where it centres on overconfidence, invulnerability

Example: let's do it, we never fail.

Pressure for uniformity

a characteristic of groupthink where divergent thinking is discouraged.

Self-censorship

a characteristic of groupthink where self‑censorship

Historical examples: Pearl Harbor, Challenger disaster

Results of the Stanley Milgram Experiment

demonstrated that ordinary people obey harmful orders from authority figures.

developed a study of memory in Yale University where participants (“teachers”) administered shocks up to dangerous levels when instructed by authority.

Stanford Prison Experiment

6-day experiment supposed to last 2 weeks that consisted 24 males.

Roles (guard/prisoner) created abusive behavior → conformity to authority

Zimbardo, principal investigator, became APA president in 2022 & concluded that the experiment was done in accordance to the standard of 1973.

Involved various major violations that caused ethical concerns → never published in peer‑review.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when other people are present.

Classic Case: Kitty Genovese

• Raped & stabbed over 30 minutes

• Many witnesses, no immediate help.

Diffusion of Responsibility

a key mechanism in the bystander effect where the reduction in the likelihood of taking action when others are present.

Pluralistic ignorance

a key mechanism in the bystander effect, relying on others’ (social cues) reactions.

Factors that affect when helping people

• Environment (urban vs. rural)

  • Urban - less likely to receive help, compared to rural areas

• Sense of common fate

  • If they die, you die

• Perceive help is needed

  • Depending on dressing, poor - not really likely to help, normal clothing - must need help

• Risk to self

  • Electrical/health factors that can be spread

• Personal factors

  • You have an exam and you see someone needs help, you less likely to help the kid as you have an exam and you don't want to be late

Cults - Social Influence

People’s Temple (Jim Jones)

• Charismatic leader, isolation & fear, control

• mass suicide of 900 members, most drank poison & who refused were shot

Doomsday Cult (Marion Keech)

• Failed prophecy (end of the world) → increased commitment due to cognitive dissonance.

Cognitive Dissonance

The psychological discomfort experienced when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes.

How to reduce Cognitive Dissonance?

1. Change attitude

2. Change behavior

Attitude

the thoughts, ideas, opinions and shapes behaviours.

Behaviours

shapes attitude.

3 components:

1. Cognitive – beliefs

2. Affective – feelings

3. Behavioral – actions

What distinguishes stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination?

Stereotypes are beliefs about groups,

prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group, and

discrimination is negative behavior toward a group.

Stereotype Threat

a threat where people fears their performance will be consistent with prevailing stereotype that reflects negative or inferiority.

Example: mathematical ability between girls vs. boys (Osborne)

Scapegoat Theory

The theory that suggests blaming weaker groups during difficult times.

Google - explains how frustrated, anxious, or economically struggling people project their anger to a vulnerable outgroup and blaming them for societal problems they didn’t cause.

Realistic Conflict Theory

a theory where there is a competition for resources.
Example: When unemployment is high, a local population may perceive that immigrants are competing for a limited number of jobs. This perceived threat frequently leads to heightened prejudice, discrimination, and demands for strict immigration policies.

Reducing Prejudice

Mutual interdependence - working together towards common goal.

• Robber’s Cave study → 2 groups separated, team building and competition that faced hostility → required mutual interdependence to increase teamwork.

Factors that affect interpersonal attractiveness

Attractiveness, proximity, similarity, and mere exposure effect.

Mere exposure effect (familiarity increases liking).

Types of aggression

Hostile aggression which is harm for its own sake and instrumental aggression which is harm to achieve a goal.

Biological Models

• Genetics

• Hormones (testosterone)

• Amygdala activity (brain physiology)

Social Learning - Behaviour modelling

• Bandura’s Bobo doll study

True altruism

Helping others with no expectation of personal gain.

Reciprocal altruism

expectation of future return when helping others.

Reciprocity norm

give & take situations that makes long-lasting relationships.

Foot-in-the-Door

A compliance technique where a small request is made followed by a larger request.

Door-in-the-Face

a compliance technique where making a large request is rejected followed by a smaller, more reasonable request that is accepted.

Lowballing

Agreeing to a deal that worsens after the agreement, but still complying with it.