AP European History: The Enlightenment ID Terms

Enlightenment

an eighteenth-century intellectual movement led by the philosophes that stressed the application of reason and the scientific method to all aspects of life

natural science

a branch of science that deals with the physical world, e.g. physics, chemistry, geology, biology

Reason

used and celebrated during the Enlightenment, it is the power by which humans understand the universe and improve their own condition; the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgements by a process of logic

Deism

belief in God as the creator of the universe who, after setting it in motion, ceased to have any direct involvement in it and allowed it to run according to its own natural laws

John Locke

(1632-1704) a primary intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment, his theory of knowledge argued that we derive our knowledge from our environment and reason, rather than heredity and faith; idea of tabula rasa

humans in a state of nature

a concept used in political philosophy by most Enlightenment philosophers, such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke: a representation of human existence prior to the existence of society understood in a more contemporary sense

Two Treatises of Civil Gov't

written by Locke in which he argued against the absolute rule of one man, believed that humans in their state of nature lived in equality and freedom with certain inalienable natural rights, and promoted a government established with mutual obligations

"consent of the governed"

Locke's argument that a government exists to serve the people, who are all equal citizens, and the people have the right to rebel if the government fails at this duty

natural rights

certain inalienable rights to which all people are entitled, including the right to life, liberty, and property; freedom of speech and religion; and equality before the law

social contract

an implicit agreement among the members of a society to cooperate for social benefits, for example by sacrificing some individual freedom for state protection

right to rebellion

the right or duty of a people to alter or abolish a government that acts against their common interests or threatens the safety of the people without cause

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

written by Locke, in which he denied Descartes' belief in innate ideas; he instead argued that every person was born with a tabula rasa, a blank mind

tabula rasa

an absence of preconceived ideas or predetermined goals; a clean slate

religious toleration

skeptic Pierre Bayle argued for complete acceptance of religious differences, maintaining that the existence of many religions would benefit rather than harm the state

Pierre Bayle

(1647-1706) a leading critic of traditional religious attitudes, he attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism; individual conscience should determine one's actions

philosophes

intellectuals of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment who believed in applying a spirit of rational criticism to all things, including religion and politics, and who focused on improving and enjoying this world, rather than on the afterlife

Voltaire

(1694-1778) known as the greatest figure of the Enlightenment, he was especially well-known for his criticism of traditional religion and his strong attachment to the ideal of religious toleration; promoted deism

"Crush the infamous thing" ("ecrasez l'infame")

Voltaire's strident denunciation of religious fanaticism, intolerance, and superstition

Baron de Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws

published in 1748, this treatise was a comparative study of governments in which Montesquieu attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the "natural laws" governing the social relationships of human beings; distinguished governments as republics, monarchy, or despotism; promoted idea of separation of powers

(Jean-Jacques) Rousseau

(1712-1778) of the philosophes of the late Enlightenment, he was perhaps the most critical of his predecessors; tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority in the social contract; true freedom is adherence to laws that one has imposed on oneself

Social Contract, 1762

Rousseau's idea that an entire society agrees to be governed by its general will; the general will represented a community's highest aspirations; liberty is achieved through being forced to follow what was best for all people because what was best for all was best for each individual; the ultimate statement of participatory democracy

general will

the source of law willed by each and every citizen; in obeying the law each citizen is thus subject to his or her own will, and consequently, according to Rousseau, remains free

"noble savage"

Rousseau's romantic conception of man enjoying a natural and noble existence until civilization makes him a slave to unnatural wants and corrupts him; Rousseau believed that only the "uncorrupted savage" is in possession of real virtue

Emile

written by Rousseau, it is one of the Enlightenment's most important works on education; education should foster rather than restrict children's natural instincts; a balance between heart and mind, between sentiment and reason

Denis Diderot, The Encyclopedia

this twenty-eight volume contribution to the Enlightenment changed the general way of thinking of the time; collaborated on by many philosophes who expressed their major concerns and promoted a society that was more cosmopolitan, tolerant, humane, and reasonable; it spread the ideas of the Enlightenment even further

Marquis de Beccaria

(1783-1794) argued that punishments should serve only as deterrents, not as exercises in brutality; opposed to the use of capital punishment because it set an example of barbarism. *No cruel or unusual punishment; the punishment should fit the crime

physiocrats

members of an 18th-century group of French economists who believed that agriculture was the source of all wealth and that agricultural products should be highly-priced; advocated adherence to a supposed natural order of social institutions; stressed the necessity of free trade

Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations

(1776) a strong attack on mercantilism; promoted free trade, argued that labor constituted the true wealth of a nation, and believed that the state should not interfere in economic matters; foundation for economic liberalism

laissez faire

"let (them) do (as they please)": an economic doctrine that holds that an economy is best served when the government does not interfere but allows the economy to self-regulate according to the forces of supply and demand

"invisible hand"

a metaphor for how, in a free market economy, self-interested individuals operate through a system of mutual interdependence. This interdependence incentivizes producers to make what is socially necessary, even though they may care only about their own well-being (supply and demand)

salon movement

gatherings of philosophes and other notables to discuss the ideas of the Enlightenment; so called from the elegant drawing rooms where they met; as hostesses, women found themselves in a position to affect the decisions of kings, sway political opinion, and influence literary and artistic taste

Madame de Geoffrin

(1699-1777) a French salon holder who has been referred to as one of the leading female figures in the French Enlightenment; from 1750 to 1777, she played host to many of the most influential philosophes and Encyclopédistes of her time

Madame de Staël

(1766-1817) a prominent writer educated in Enlightenment ideas, she set up a salon in Paris that was a prominent intellectual center by 1800; wrote novels and political works that denounced Napoleon's rule as tyrannical

Mary Wollstonecraft

(1759-1797) English writer viewed by many as the founder of modern European feminism; argued that the subjugation of women to men was wrong and that women are entitled to the same rights in education, politics, and the economy that men have

David Hume

(1711-1776) a pioneering social scientist, he argued that observation and reflection, grounded in "systematized common sense," made conceivable a "science of man"; careful examination of the experiences that constituted human life would lead to the knowledge of human nature that would make social science possible

Immanuel Kant

(1724-1804) German philosopher who defined the Enlightenment as "man's leaving his self-caused immaturity"; "Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence!"; argued that we can only have knowledge of things we can experience

classical liberalism

a political tradition and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics; civil liberties under the rule of law with especial emphasis on individual autonomy, limited government, economic freedom, political freedom, and freedom of speech

Enlightened Despotism

an absolute monarchy in which the ruler follows the principles of the Enlightenment by introducing reforms for the improvement of society, allowing freedom of speech and the press, permitting religious toleration, expanding education, and ruling in accordance with the laws

Frederick the Great

(r. 1740-1786) under his leadership Prussia became one of the great states of Europe, with vastly expanded territories and impressive military strength; in addition to modernizing the army, he also espoused the ideas of enlightened despotism and instituted numerous economic, civil, and social reforms

Diplomatic Revolution of 1756

the reversal of longstanding alliances in Europe between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. Austria went from an ally of Britain to an ally of France, while Prussia became an ally of Britain

Catherine the Great

(1762-1796) an enlightened despot, she was the longest-reigning empress of Russia; her most significant accomplishments include establishing educational reform, championing the arts, and extending Russia's borders in the most significant territorial gain since Ivan the Terrible

Pugachev Rebellion

(1773-1775) a Russian Cossack soldier led a massive serf uprising and demanded an end to serfdom, taxes, and army service; landlords and officials were murdered all over southwestern Russia; eventually captured and executed; Catherine the Great realized her heavy reliance on the nobility to control the country and instigated a series of reforms giving them greater control over their land and serfs