Success and Failures of Chiang Kaishek

Successes of the Nanjing Decade (1927-1937)

1. Political Unification

2. Administrative and Legal Reform

3. Economic Development

4. Military Modernization

5. Education and Culture

6. International Recognition

Political Unification

• Northern Expedition (1926–1928): Defeated major warlords like the Zhili and Fengtian cliques.

• 1928 – Capture of Beijing: Marked the end of the Warlord Era (in theory).

• Chiang proclaimed the Republic of China as the legitimate government of a unified China.

• National Government established in Nanjing with Sun Yat-sen’s "Three Principles of the People" as its ideological basis.

Administrative and Legal Reform

• 1930 – Organic Law of the National Government: Established a five-branch government (Executive, Legislative, Judicial, Control, Examination Yuan) based on Sun’s vision.

• Civil Code (1929–30) and Criminal Code (1934): Modern Western-style legal reforms, especially modeled after German and Japanese systems.

• Creation of institutions such as the Academia Sinica (1928) and Control Yuan (1931) for oversight and research.

Economic Development

• 1933 – Tariff Autonomy regained: China could set its own tariffs for the first time since the 19th century.

• Increased foreign investment and GDP growth of 3–5% per year in the early 1930s.

• Currency reform (1935): Introduction of the fabi, a paper currency backed by foreign exchange reserves, replacing silver.

• Major infrastructure projects:

  • Road building increased from 8,000 km (1921) to 115,000 km (1936)

  • Railways extended from 13,000 km to 16,000 km

• Establishment of state-run industries like the China National Aviation Corporation (1930).

Military Modernization

• Whampoa Military Academy graduates formed the core of the National Revolutionary Army.

• 1933 – German military mission under General Hans Von Sekt helped reorganize the Chinese army.

• Increase in military spending and centralization, though still limited in effectiveness.

Education and Culture

• School enrollment nearly doubled: From 6.4 million (1927) to 12.4 million (1936).

• New Life Movement (1934): Promoted Confucian morality, discipline, hygiene, and anti-Communist values.

• Literacy campaigns and reforms in urban education systems.

International Recognition

• Most Western powers and the League of Nations recognized the Nanjing government.

• China joined the League of Nations' Opium Advisory Committee and pushed for abolition of extraterritorial rights.

Failures of the Nanjing Decade

1. Limited Control and Warlordism

2. Authoritarianism and Corruption

3. Failure to Address Rural Poverty

4. Inability to Eliminate the CCP

5. Weak Response to Japanese Aggression

6. Social Unrest

Limited Control and Warlordism

• Warlords like Yan Xishan in Shanxi and Feng Yuxiang in the northwest retained autonomy.

• Chiang often brokered deals with warlords rather than defeating them militarily.

• Manchuria remained outside central control, ruled by Zhang Xueliang until the Japanese invasion.

Authoritarianism and Corruption

• No functioning democracy: Promised constitutional rule was repeatedly postponed.

• 1931 Provisional Constitution kept power centralized in Chiang’s hands.

• CC Clique (Chiang’s supporters) and other factions controlled the party and government, leading to nepotism and graft.

• Secret police like the Blue Shirts Society monitored and suppressed dissent.

Failure to Address Rural Poverty

• Over 80% of China’s population were peasants, many landless or heavily taxed.

• No national land reform policies; in fact, the government often relied on landlords for local control.

• Peasant uprisings and rural dissatisfaction helped fuel Communist support.

• Rural taxes were about 50–70% of a peasant’s income in some areas.

Inability to Eliminate the CCP

• Five Encirclement Campaigns (1930–1934) against the Communist base in Jiangxi; first four failed.

• Fifth Campaign (1933–34) forced the CCP to begin the Long March in October 1934.

• Despite massive efforts, Chiang failed to destroy the Communists, allowing them to regroup in Yan'an.

Weak Response to Japanese Aggression

• 1931 – Mukden Incident: Japan seized Manchuria and established Manchukuo.

• Chiang pursued a policy of “internal pacification before external resistance”, focusing on the Communists.

• 1933 – Tanggu Truce: Allowed Japan to retain control of Manchuria and parts of Hebei, seen as a national humiliation.

• 1936 – Xi’an Incident: Chiang was kidnapped by Zhang Xueliang and forced to form the Second United Front with the Communists to fight Japan.

Social Unrest

• Suppression of labor unions, student protests, and left-wing organizations.

• Example: Shanghai Massacre (1927) – Chiang ordered the violent suppression of Communists in Shanghai, killing thousands.

• Widespread censorship and political arrests.

Features of GMD Leadership

1. Authoritarian and Centralized Rule

2. One-Party State with Delayed Constitutionalism

3. Militaristic Governance

4. Anti-Communism

5. Ideological Control – Sun Yat-sen’s Principles

6. Surveillance and Repression

7. Modernization Goals (with Urban Bias)

8. Corruption and Factionalism

Authoritarian and Centralized Rule

• Chiang Kai-shek was both the head of the GMD and Chairman of the National Government, effectively holding supreme political and military authority.

• Power was concentrated in Chiang’s inner circle, especially the CC Clique (run by the Chen brothers, close allies of Chiang).

• No multi-party democracy: The GMD was the only legal political party, and opposition (especially Communists and leftists) was violently suppressed.

One-Party State with Delayed Constitutionalism

• The GMD claimed to be following Sun Yat-sen’s Three-Stage Theory:

  1. Military rule

  2. Political tutelage (transitional phase)

  3. Constitutional democracy

• The Nanjing Decade was officially the "political tutelage" phase, meaning no elections or constitution were implemented.

• 1931 Provisional Constitution gave the government sweeping powers under the guise of preparation for democracy, but democracy was indefinitely delayed.

Militaristic Governance

• The GMD leadership had a strong military orientation. Chiang himself was a military leader first and foremost.

• Key political figures were often military officers or had military backgrounds.

• Whampoa Military Academy (founded 1924) was a pipeline for loyalist officers.

• Frequent use of military force for political control: suppression of Communists, warlords, and protests.

Anti-Communism

• The GMD's ideology was vehemently anti-Communist.

• Key events:

  • Shanghai Massacre (1927): Chiang ordered the violent purge of Communists in Shanghai.

  • Encirclement Campaigns (1930–34): Military attempts to destroy the Chinese Communist Party’s bases.

• Led to a civil war between the GMD and the CCP, which was only paused in 1936 due to Japanese invasion pressure.

Ideological Control – Sun Yat-sen’s Principles

• Official ideology was Sun Yat-sen’s Three Principles of the People:

  • Nationalism (resist imperialism and unify China)

  • Democracy (eventually establish constitutional rule)

  • People’s Livelihood (a vague idea, leaning toward moderate socialism)

• In practice, however, these principles were used to justify authoritarian rule.

• New Life Movement (1934) promoted a mix of Confucian ethics, militaristic discipline, and anti-Communist ideology.

Surveillance and Repression

• Secret police, including the Blue Shirts Society, were used to monitor and suppress opposition.

• Censorship of the press, education, and public discourse.

• Dissidents, student protesters, union leaders, and Communists were imprisoned, tortured, or killed.

Modernization Goals (with Urban Bias)

• the GMD leadership aimed to modernize China, especially its cities:

  • Expanded roads, railways, postal and banking systems.

  • Promoted industry, foreign investment, and urban education.

• But these reforms largely ignored the rural population, where the majority of Chinese lived.

Corruption and Factionalism

• The government was plagued by corruption, nepotism, and bureaucratic inefficiency.

• Power struggles between factions within the GMD (e.g. CC Clique, Political Study Clique, Whampoa officers) undermined unity.

• Reforms were often stalled or undermined by self-interest.