AP Psychology - Unit 0: Perspectives, Research Methods, Sampling, Ethics, and Statistics Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards covering concepts from Pages 1–3 notes.

Cultural norms

Shared expectations and rules that guide behavior of people within social groups.

Confirmation bias

Tendency to search for or interpret information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

Hindsight bias

Believing you predicted an outcome after it happens (I-knew-it-all-along effect).

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate accuracy of one’s knowledge or judgments.

Experimental (random assignment)

Research method manipulating an independent variable to observe effects on a dependent variable, with random assignment.

Case study

In-depth examination of a single person or group; non-experimental.

Correlation

Non-experimental method measuring the relationship between two variables (does not prove causation).

Meta-analysis

Statistical combination of results from many studies to look for overall trends.

Hypothesis

Testable prediction.

Falsifiable

Capable of being disproven by evidence.

Operational definitions

Exact procedures used to define and measure variables.

Independent variable (IV)

The factor manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent variable (DV)

The outcome measured.

Confounding variables

Uncontrolled factors that may affect the DV.

Sample

Subset of individuals from a population used in research.

Population

The larger group from which a sample is drawn.

Representative sample

Sample that accurately reflects the demographics of the population.

Random sampling

Each member of the population has equal chance of selection.

Convenience sampling

Using participants who are easily accessible.

Sampling bias

Error when a sample is not representative of the population.

Generalizability

Extent to which results can be applied to the population.

Experimental group

Group that receives the treatment (IV).

Control group

Group not exposed to the IV, used for comparison.

Placebo

Inert substance/treatment with no effect, used as control.

Single-blind

Participants unaware of whether they receive treatment or placebo.

Double-blind

Neither participants nor researchers know who receives treatment/placebo.

Social desirability bias

Tendency to respond in ways viewed favorably by others.

Qualitative

Data in non-numerical form (e.g., interviews).

Quantitative

Numerical data (e.g., surveys, scales).

Peer review

Evaluation of research by other experts before publication.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if findings are consistent.

Variables

Factors that can change or vary.

Directionality problem

In correlation, uncertainty about which variable causes the other.

Third variable problem

Correlation may be influenced by another unmeasured factor.

Survey technique

Gathering data via questionnaires or interviews.

Self-report bias

Inaccuracy in data when participants misreport behaviors/thoughts.

Institutional review board (IRB)

Committee ensuring ethical guidelines are followed.

Informed consent

Participants must be told about the study and agree to participate.

Informed assent

Agreement from minors/individuals not legally able to give consent.

Protection from harm

Participants must not face unnecessary physical/psychological risk.

Confidentiality

Protecting private participant information.

Deception

Misleading participants about true purpose (allowed only when justified).

Research confederates

Actors who secretly participate to aid the experiment.

Debriefing

Explaining the study to participants afterward, especially if deception was used.

Mean

Arithmetic average.

Median

Middle value in a data set.

Mode

Most frequently occurring score.

Range

Difference between highest and lowest values.

Normal curve

Symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution of data.

Variation

Degree to which scores differ from each other.

Skewness

Asymmetry in distribution of data.

Bimodal distribution

Distribution with two frequent peaks.

Standard deviation

Measure of spread around the mean.

Percentile rank

Percentage of scores equal to or below a given score.

Regression toward the mean

Extreme scores tend to return closer to average over time.

Scatterplot

Graph showing relationship between two variables.

Correlation coefficient (r)

Number from –1.0 to +1.0 showing strength/direction of correlation.

Effect size

Magnitude of a relationship or difference.

Statistical significance

Likelihood that results are not due to chance.