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Fault
A discontinuity along which there is visible offset by shear displacement
Why would a fault stop at the boundary between rock layers?
Softer, more plastic rock
Rock was deposited after the formation of the fault
Rake
Angle along the plane between the strike direction and a lineation (or fault slip). Measured clockwise
Separation
Apparent offset of a feature across a fault along its trace
Slip
Absolute offset of a feature or amount of motion along a fault
Heave
Horizontal component of separation
Throw
Vertical component of separation
Scarps
Offsets/steps in land surface coinciding with locations of faults and formed by recent fault movements
Fault-Line Scarps
Offsets/steps in land surface coinciding with fault trace and formed by differential weathering of juxtaposed units
Slickensides
Smoothed, sometimes highly polished, surfaces created by fault grinding
Slickenlines
Striations or lineations that indicate the direction of movement
Slickenfibers
Slip-fibers or crystal fibers. Crystal growth that looks similar to a slickenside that indicates the direction of movement
Describe fault rocks as depth increases
Upper few km: incohesive rocks, often starts with breccia then grinds to gouge. Rapid movement may produce gouge and/or pseudotachylyte
Greater depth: produce more cohesive breccias and cataclasites
Below 10-15 km: plastic behavior dominates over the long term
Pseudotachtylyte
Type of rock formed by frictional melting during earthquakes
Riedel Shears
En-echelon segments that accommodate bulk displacement at an angle to the larger displacements
Synthetic Shears
R-Shears. Lie closer to the main trend and have the same sense of slip as the main fault
Antithetic Shears
R’-Shears. Conjugate to the synthetic segments and have the opposite sense of displacement
Pull-Apart Basin
Region in the releasing bend of a fault where the earth sinks down due to tension
Dilational Jog
Pull-apart or releasing bend produced by the transtension mode of deformation
Antidilational Jog
Restraining bend produced by the transcompressive mode of deformation
Fault Drag
The bending of beds near a fault away from the direction of movement
Reverse Drag
The bending of beds near a fault towards the direction of movement
Fault Slipping
Faults slip more closer to the point of origin of the slip
Antithetic Faults
Faults that dip towards the main fault
Synthetic Faults
Faults that dip with the main fault
Duplex
An isolated, fault-bound block
Graben
A region bounded by faults and displaced downwards. V-shaped
Horst
A region bounded by faults and displaced upwards. A-shaped
Flower Structures
Restraining and releasing beds can form clusters of oblique thrust or normal faults. These faults link together to form a series of isolated, fault-bound blocks
Positive Flower Structure
Found at the restraining bend where there is uplift
Negative Flower Structure
Found at the releasing bend where there is downwarping
Allochtonous
Rock far out of place due to thrusting
Autochthonous
Rock not displaced but in contact with allochthonous rocks
Klippe
An isolated exposure of allochthonous rock
Nappe
A large exposure of allochthonous rock
Window
A gap cutting through allochthonous rock into the autochthon below
Thin-Skinned
Basement rock is not involved
Thick-Skinned
Basement rock is involved
Thrust Wedges
Form horses along ramps
Back Thrusts
Wedges that go the opposite direction of the main trust
High Basal Friction
Shallower thrusts, thicker piles
Low Basal Friction
Steeper thrusts, thinner piles, more backthrusts
Anticline
A fold that is convex in the direction of the youngest beds
Syncline
A fold that is convex in the direction of the oldest
Antiform
Convex up
Synform
Concave up
Recumbent Folds
Folds lying on their sides
Isoclinal
Folds where the limbs are more or less equally inclined (almost parallel)
Monoclines
Regional scale step-like folds where otherwise horizontal or very shallowly dipping strata to bend abruptly to steeper inclinations within narrow zones
Fold Geometries
Kink Band, Concentric, Similar, Cuspate, Circular, Elliptical, Chevron, Box
Cylindrical Fold
Hinge line is straight
Fold Tightness
Gentle (170), Open (90), Tight (10), Isoclinal (0)
Concentric Folds
Folds where layer thickness does not change along the fold. Strain is accommodated by flexural slip
Similar Folds
Folds where layer geometry is nearly the same from one layer to the next. Hinges are thickened and limbs are thinned
Class 1 Dip Isogon
Dip isogons converge toward the inner arc, which is tighter than the outer arc
Class 2 Dip Isogon
Dip isogons parallel the axial trace. E.g. similar folds
Class 3 Dip Isogon
Dip isogons diverge toward the inner arc, which is more open than the outer arc
Buckling
Strain accommodated by internal flow of the layer as well as slip along the layer boundaries. Resulting folds have dominant wavelength
Boudinage
A series of elongated parallel sections formed by the fracturing of a sedimentary rock stratum during folding
Parasitic Folds
Smaller folds that form within a larger fold