exam 1 Patho

What are common etiologic factors that cause cellular adaptations or maladaptations?

 Hypoxia, free radicals, physical agents, chemical injury, infectious agents, immunologic reactions, and genetic defects.

 What are common types of cellular adaptations?

Atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia.

What is hypertrophy?

An increase in cell size, commonly in response to increased workload like muscle growth from exercise

 What is atrophy?

A decrease in cell size due to disuse, aging, or poor nourishment.

What causes endothelial injury?

Hypertension, hyperglycemia, free radicals, and high levels of LDL cholesterol.

What is ischemia?

Reduced blood flow to tissues, leading to oxygen deprivation and potential cell injury.

What is infarction?

Irreversible tissue death due to prolonged ischemia.

What is the significance of cellular maladaptation?

It can lead to disease development or progression, such as cancer from dysplasia.

What is hydrostatic pressure?

 The pressure exerted by fluid in the capillaries that pushes water out into the interstitial space.

What is osmotic pressure?

: The pulling force exerted by solutes (like albumin) that draws water into the capillaries.

What is Starling’s Law of Capillary Forces?

 It states that fluid movement is controlled by the balance between hydrostatic and oncotic pressures.

What causes edema?

Increased hydrostatic pressure, decreased oncotic pressure, or lymphatic obstruction.

What are the major fluid compartments in the body?

Intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF), which includes interstitial fluid and plasma.

What causes hyponatremia?

Excess water intake, heart failure, or SIADH (syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone).

What symptoms are seen in hypernatremia?

Thirst, confusion, muscle twitching, and seizures in severe cases

 What causes hypokalemia?

Diuretics, vomiting, diarrhea, or poor intake

What are signs of hyperkalemia?

Muscle weakness, cardiac arrhythmias, and peaked T-waves on EKG

What happens in fluid volume deficit (dehydration)?

Decreased urine output, hypotension, dry mucous membranes, and tachycardia.

What is the role of aldosterone in fluid balance?

It promotes sodium and water retention, increasing blood volume.

How does ADH affect fluid levels?

It promotes water reabsorption in the kidneys to increase fluid volume.

What type of IV fluid is used for dehydration?

 Isotonic solutions like 0.9% normal saline.

What are the phases of inflammation?

Vascular phase, cellular chemotaxis, and systemic responses.

 What cells are involved in inflammation?

 Neutrophils, macrophages, eosinophils, basophils, and lymphocytes.

 What are key inflammatory mediators?

Histamine, prostaglandins, TNF-alpha, and interleukins.

What are signs of systemic inflammation?

Fever, leukocytosis, and elevated CRP (C-reactive protein).

What lab tests are used to assess inflammation?

CRP, ESR, and WBC count.

What is primary intention in wound healing?

 Healing of a clean wound with minimal tissue loss, like a surgical incision.

 What factors impair wound healing?

Poor nutrition, infection, diabetes, corticosteroids, and age.

What is a keloid?

 An overgrowth of scar tissue due to excessive collagen formation.

What is secondary intention healing?

Healing of a wound with significant tissue loss; wound edges are not approximated.

What is tertiary intention healing?

 Delayed closure of a wound that was previously left open for infection control.

What causes respiratory acidosis?

Hypoventilation, COPD, or respiratory depression.

What causes metabolic alkalosis?

Vomiting, diuretics, or excessive bicarbonate intake.

How do lungs compensate for metabolic acidosis?

By increasing respiratory rate to blow off CO₂.

How do kidneys compensate for respiratory alkalosis?

 By excreting more bicarbonate and retaining hydrogen ions.

What electrolyte imbalance is common in acidosis?

 Hyperkalemia due to H+/K+ shift.

How is acid-base status evaluated?

 By analyzing arterial blood gas (ABG) values: pH, PaCO₂, HCO₃⁻

What is the normal pH range of blood?

7.35 to 7.45.

What are common types of microorganisms causing infection?

Bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and prions.

What are the stages of infection?

 Incubation, prodromal, acute, convalescent, and resolution.

What are common portals of entry for pathogens?

 Skin, respiratory tract, GI tract, and genitourinary tract.

What are modes of transmission?

Direct contact, airborne, droplet, vector-borne, and fomite.

What tests help diagnose infection?

CBC with differential, culture and sensitivity, serologic tests.

What are examples of viral infections?

Influenza, HIV, and herpes simplex virus.

 How can infections be prevented?

Vaccination, hygiene, PPE, sterilization, and antimicrobial therapy.

 What are signs of systemic infection?

Fever, fatigue, increased WBC count, and chills.

 What are common STIs?

Chlamydia, gonorrhea, HPV, herpes, syphilis, HIV.

What are symptoms of chlamydia and gonorrhea?

 Discharge, painful urination, pelvic pain (often asymptomatic in women).

How are STIs transmitted?

Through sexual contact (vaginal, oral, anal), blood, and from mother to child.

What are complications of untreated STIs?

Infertility, pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, chronic pain.