European History: Feudalism, Renaissance, and Revolutions

Feudalism

A system where land is exchanged for service; kings → nobles → vassals/knights → peasants.

Black Plague

Deadly bubonic plague that killed 1/3-1/2 of Europe; spread by fleas on rats.

Great Schism

Split in the Catholic Church where two popes claimed authority, damaging Church credibility.

Flagellants

Religious extremists who whipped themselves believing the plague was God's punishment.

Hundred Years' War

A war between England and France from 1337-1453 over control of the French throne.

Renaissance

"Rebirth" of classical Greek and Roman ideas focusing on humanism and learning.

Humanism

Belief in human potential, individualism, and study of classical texts.

Secularism

Focus on worldly, nonreligious subjects instead of Church matters.

Leonardo da Vinci

Renaissance man known for the Mona Lisa, Last Supper, inventions, and scientific sketches.

Northern Renaissance

Cultural revival in northern Europe after 1450; focused on religious reform and realism.

Albrecht Dürer

"German Leonardo"; master of engraving who brought Renaissance ideas north.

Gutenberg Press

Printing press invented by Johann Gutenberg; increased literacy and spread ideas.

Main Church Abuse

Selling indulgences (buying forgiveness).

Martin Luther

Monk who wrote the 95 Theses and began the Protestant Reformation.

Peasants' Revolt

1524-25 uprising inspired by Reformation ideas; violently crushed by nobles.

John Calvin

Founder of Calvinism; believed in predestination and strict discipline.

Anabaptists

Protestants who believed in adult baptism and separation of church and state.

Henry VIII

King who broke from Catholic Church to form Anglican Church; had six wives and three children.

Jesuits

Catholic order founded by Ignatius of Loyola; focused on education and missionary work.

Copernicus

Proposed heliocentric theory (sun-centered universe).

Why Church Opposed New Ideas

They threatened Church authority and contradicted scripture.

Galileo

Improved telescope; proved heliocentrism; tried by the Inquisition.

Scientific Method

Logical procedure: observe, hypothesize, test, conclude.

René Descartes

Philosopher emphasizing reason; "I think, therefore I am."

Isaac Newton

Scientist known for laws of motion and gravity.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

Improved microscope and discovered bacteria.

Prince Henry

Portuguese prince who founded a navigation school.

Bartolomeu Dias

First to round the Cape of Good Hope (1488).

Christopher Columbus

Reached the Americas in 1492 while seeking a route to Asia.

Ferdinand Magellan

His voyage led to first circumnavigation of the globe.

Vasco Núñez de Balboa

First European to see the Pacific Ocean (crossed Panama).

Aztec Empire Conqueror

Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztecs in Mexico.

Inca Empire Conqueror

Francisco Pizarro defeated the Incas in Peru.

La Malinche

Translator and advisor who helped Cortés conquer the Aztecs.

Montezuma II

Aztec emperor who hesitated to fight Cortés.

Samuel de Champlain

French explorer who founded Quebec (1608).

Jamestown

Founded in 1607; survived because of tobacco.

Mayflower Compact

Agreement by Pilgrims establishing self-rule in Plymouth.

French and Indian War

Ended with the Treaty of Paris (1763); Britain gained Canada.

Middle Passage

Route enslaved Africans took across the Atlantic.

Crops Enslaved Africans Grew

Sugar, tobacco, and cotton.

First Slave-Trade Leader

Portugal dominated early slave trade.

Columbian Exchange

Exchange of plants, animals, diseases between Old and New Worlds.

Mercantilism

Economic system where wealth is measured in gold and silver.

Price Revolution

Inflation caused by influx of silver from the Americas.

Absolute Monarchy

Government where ruler has complete power, justified by divine right.

Philip II

Absolute monarch of Spain.

Huguenots

French Protestants.

Louis XIV

"Sun King"; absolute ruler of France; built Versailles.

Catherine the Great

Russian empress who expanded territory and embraced Enlightenment ideas.

John Locke

Enlightenment thinker; natural rights: life, liberty, property.

Thomas Hobbes

Believed people are naturally selfish; supported strong government.

Rousseau

Believed government should reflect the general will (social contract).

Montesquieu

Believed in separation of powers and checks and balances.

Natural Rights

Life, liberty, property.

Laissez-faire Economics

Idea that government should not interfere with economy.

Intolerable Acts

Punishment for the Boston Tea Party.

Thomas Jefferson

Wrote the Declaration of Independence.

Battle of Saratoga

Turning point that convinced France to help Americans.

No taxation without representation

Colonists protested taxes without representation in Parliament.

Enlightenment Idea Influencing Constitution

Separation of powers and natural rights.

First Estate

Clergy in French society.

Second Estate

Nobility in French society.

Third Estate

Rest of population: peasants, workers, bourgeoisie.

Start of French Revolution

Storming of the Bastille (1789).

Bastille Symbolized

Tyranny and royal oppression.

Robespierre

Leader of the Reign of Terror.

Declaration of Rights of Man

Inspired by Enlightenment and American Revolution.

How Napoleon Came to Power

Military success and a coup.

Why Napoleon Failed in Russia

Harsh winter and poor supply lines.

Napoleon's Final Exile

St. Helena after defeat at Waterloo.

Spinning Jenny

Machine that spun thread quickly.

Bessemer Process

Allowed cheap and fast production of steel.

Andrew Carnegie

Ran the steel industry.

John Rockefeller

Ran the Standard Oil Company.

Steam Engine

Powered factories, trains, and machines.

Assembly Line

Manufacturing system created by Henry Ford.

Proletariat

Working class.

Labor Unions

Groups formed to protect workers' rights and improve conditions.

Industrial Revolution Start

Began in Great Britain.

Child Labor

Children worked dangerous industrial jobs for long hours.

Karl Marx

Founder of communism; believed workers should overthrow capitalism.

Adam Smith

Father of capitalism; supported free markets.

Nationalism

Strong pride and loyalty to one's nation.

Conservatism

Supports tradition, monarchy, stability.

Principle of Intervention

Right to intervene to stop revolutions.

Liberalism

Supports rights, constitution, limited government, voting.

Mob Rule

Fear that democracy causes chaos.

Congress of Vienna

Meeting to restore order after Napoleon's defeat.