Brown LeMay 13e - Chemistry - The Central Science Textbook - AP Chem

Chemistry

The study of matter, its properties, composition, and interactions.

Matter

Anything that has mass and occupies space, existing in various states such as solid, liquid, or gas.

Atoms

The basic units of matter composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Molecules

Groups of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest unit of a chemical compound.

Ions

Charged particles formed when atoms gain or lose electrons.

Chemical Reactions

Processes where substances transform into new substances through breaking and forming chemical bonds.

Stoichiometry

The calculation of reactants and products in chemical reactions based on the law of conservation of mass.

Aqueous Solutions

Solutions where water acts as the solvent.

Acids and Bases

Substances that donate or accept protons, respectively, in chemical reactions.

Thermochemistry

The study of heat changes in chemical reactions and physical processes.

Enthalpy

A state function that describes the total heat content of a system at constant pressure.

Hess's Law

States that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is the same regardless of the number of steps in the reaction.

Calorimetry

The science of measuring heat changes during chemical reactions or physical changes.

Enthalpies of Formation

The enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements in their standard states.

Quantum Mechanics

The branch of physics that describes the behavior of very small particles such as atoms and subatomic particles.

Electron Configuration

The arrangement of electrons in an atom, molecule, or other physical structure.

VSEPR Model

A model used to predict the geometry of individual molecules based on the repulsion between electron pairs.

Hybrid Orbitals

Orbitals formed by mixing atomic orbitals on the same atom to create new orbitals suitable for bonding.

Ideal Gas Law

Describes the behavior of an ideal gas in terms of pressure, volume, temperature, and the number of moles.

Intermolecular Forces

Forces of attraction or repulsion between molecules that determine the physical properties of substances.

X-ray Diffraction

A method to study the arrangement of atoms in a crystal by analyzing the diffraction pattern of X-rays.

Solid-State Lighting

The technology that uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as sources of illumination.

Recycling Plastics

The process of converting waste plastics into reusable material to reduce environmental impact.

Saturated Solutions

Solutions that contain the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve at a given temperature.

Solubility

The ability of a solute to dissolve in a solvent at a specific temperature and pressure.

Colligative Properties

Properties of solutions that depend on the number of solute particles, not their identity.

Equilibrium Constant

A value that expresses the ratio of products to reactants at equilibrium for a chemical reaction.

Acid-Base Equilibria

The study of the behavior of acids and bases in solution and their equilibrium reactions.

Buffers

Solutions that resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added.

Entropy

A measure of the disorder or randomness of a system.

Gibbs Free Energy

A thermodynamic potential that measures the maximum reversible work that may be performed by a system at constant temperature and pressure.

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Reactions involving the transfer of electrons from one species to another.

Lead-Acid Battery

A type of battery that uses lead dioxide as the positive plate, metallic lead as the negative plate, and sulfuric acid as the electrolyte.

Lithium-Ion Batteries

Rechargeable batteries that use lithium ions to store and release electrical energy.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Devices that convert the chemical energy of hydrogen into electricity through electrochemical reactions.

Corrosion of Iron (Rusting)

The process where iron reacts with oxygen and water to form iron oxide, causing deterioration of iron objects.

Electrolysis

The process of using an electric current to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction.

Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

The emission of radiation from an unstable atomic nucleus, leading to the formation of new elements.

Nuclear Transmutations

The process of changing one element into another through nuclear reactions.

Rates of Radioactive Decay

The speed at which radioactive isotopes decay and transform into other elements.

Transition Metals

Elements in the middle of the periodic table that have partially filled d orbitals in their electron configurations.

Coordination Chemistry

The study of coordination compounds where a central metal atom is surrounded by ligands.

Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogenase

The process by which certain microorganisms convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, facilitated by the enzyme nitrogenase.

Amphiprotic Behavior of Amino Acids

Amino acids can act as both acids and bases, possessing both acidic and basic functional groups.

Blood as a Buffered Solution

Blood contains chemical buffers that help maintain a stable pH, crucial for proper physiological functioning.

Ocean Acidification

The ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, primarily caused by the absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Tooth Decay and Fluoridation

The process of tooth decay and the use of fluoride to prevent cavities by strengthening tooth enamel.

Entropy and Human Society

The concept of entropy in the context of human society and its impact on organization and energy use.

Driving Nonspontaneous Reactions

Coupling Reactions:Linking nonspontaneous reactions to spontaneous ones to drive overall chemical processes.

Heartbeats and Electrocardiography

Monitoring heart activity through the use of electrocardiograms to assess heart health.

Medical Applications of Radiotracers

Using radioactive isotopes in medical imaging and diagnostics to track physiological processes.

Radiation Therapy

Treatment of diseases, especially cancer, using targeted radiation to destroy malignant cells.

Nitroglycerin, Nitric Oxide, and Heart Disease

The role of nitroglycerin and nitric oxide in treating heart conditions like angina.

Arsenic in Drinking Water

The presence of arsenic in drinking water sources and its health implications.

The Battle for Iron in Living Systems

The competition for iron among organisms and its significance in biological processes.

Kinetics

The study of factors that determine the speed and extent of chemical reactions, covered in Chapter 14.

Equilibria

Explores the balance between forward and reverse reactions, discussed in Chapters 15–17.

Thermodynamics

Focuses on energy changes in chemical reactions, detailed in Chapter 19.

Electrochemistry

Examines the relationship between chemical reactions and electricity, presented in Chapter 20.

Environmental chemistry

Applies chemical concepts to analyze the impact of human activities on the atmosphere and hydrosphere, discussed in Chapter 18.

Nuclear chemistry

Deals with the properties and behavior of radioactive elements, explored in Chapter 21.

Nonmetals

Covers the chemistry of elements that are not classified as metals, discussed in Chapter 22.

Transition metals

Focuses on the chemistry of transition metals and coordination compounds, detailed in Chapter 23.

Organic compounds

Explores the chemistry of carbon-containing compounds and elementary biochemical themes, presented in Chapter 24.

Focus on Important Concepts

Recognize and prioritize key concepts and skills emphasized by your instructor to guide your studying effectively.

Multiple Reviews

Revisit assigned materials more than once to enhance learning and understanding of chapter concepts and problem-solving skills.

Skim Topics Before Lecture

Quickly review upcoming topics before class to facilitate note-taking during lectures and grasp the scope of the subject.

Learn the Language of Chemistry

Understand and differentiate terms in chemistry to avoid confusion and errors in exams.

End-of-Chapter Exercises

Engage in assigned exercises to practice and apply essential chapter ideas actively.

Think Like a Scientist

Develop critical thinking skills by utilizing conceptual learning exercises and experimental design tasks.

Use Online Resources

Take advantage of online tools like MasteringChemistry® to enhance your learning experience in chemistry.

MasteringChemistry®

An online tutorial, homework, and assessment system for chemistry that helps maximize class time with customizable assessments and provides unique insight into student performance.

Pearson eText

An electronic text integrated within MasteringChemistry® that offers functionalities like note-taking, highlighting, and bookmarking.

Solutions to Red Exercises

A resource providing full solutions to red-numbered exercises in the text to aid student understanding.

Laboratory Experiments

A manual containing 40 experiments to introduce students to lab techniques and core chemical principles, with the option to customize labs through Catalyst.

Solutions to Exercises

A manual containing all end-of-chapter exercises in the text, available to students with instructor permission.

Online Instructor Resource Center

A collection of resources for instructors including artwork, PowerPoint presentations, and test item files.

TestGen Testbank

A test item file with over 4,000 questions, including algorithmic questions, to aid in creating assessments.

Annotated Instructor’s Edition to Laboratory Experiments

A manual combining the student lab manual with additional resources like disposal of chemical waste guidelines and answers to questions.

Data-Driven Analytics

Authors use data from MasteringChemistry® to improve end-of-chapter questions by analyzing student performance, time taken, and wrong answers submitted.

Design an Experiment

Exercises in each chapter challenge students to think like scientists, plan experiments, and integrate skills learned in previous chapters.

Go Figure

Questions in the text prompt students to analyze artwork for conceptual understanding, with voice balloons aiding in breaking down image components.

Practice Exercises

New multiple-choice exercises accompany Sample Exercises, providing additional problems to test mastery and address common misconceptions.

Give It Some Thought (GIST) questions

Informal exercises in the text and MasteringChemistry® help students gauge their understanding as they read.

Active and Visual Learning

Authors emphasize active participation and interaction with material, offering a personalized learning experience through MasteringChemistry®.

Learning Catalytics

A student engagement and assessment system allowing real-time assessment, adjustment of lectures, and enhancement of critical-thinking skills.

Pause and Predict Videos

Videos created by Dr. Matt Stoltzfus that engage students by prompting them to submit predictions about experiment outcomes before seeing the final results.

Adaptive Learning

Personalized learning approach in MasteringChemistry® that provides error-specific feedback and includes new assignment types like Adaptive Follow-Up Assignments and Dynamic Study Modules.

Matter

The physical material of the universe that has mass and occupies space, studied in chemistry to understand its properties and behavior.

Elements

Substances that make up all matter, with about 100 different types known, forming the basis of the composition of matter.

Atoms and Molecules

Atoms are the smallest building blocks of matter, combining to form molecules with specific compositions and structures, influencing the properties of substances.

Chemistry in Everyday Life

Chemistry is central to understanding various phenomena in daily life, from the colors of tree leaves to the functioning of batteries, emphasizing the importance of chemical principles in our surroundings.

States of Matter

Matter can exist in three forms - gas, liquid, or solid, each with distinct properties and behaviors.

Pure Substance

Matter with consistent properties and composition, not varying from sample to sample, such as water or table salt.

Elements

Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances, composed of only one kind of atom.

Compounds

Substances made up of two or more elements, containing different kinds of atoms.

Mixtures

Combinations of two or more substances where each retains its chemical identity and properties, with varying compositions.

Heterogeneous mixture

A mixture composed of different substances that are physically distinct and not uniformly distributed.

Compound

A substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements in fixed proportions.

Physical properties

Characteristics of a substance that can be observed or measured without changing its chemical composition.