Chapter 4

This set of flashcards covers key vocabulary and concepts related to the Congress and the Legislative Branch as discussed in the lecture notes.

Basic Duties of Congress

The fundamental responsibilities of the U.S. Congress as outlined in the Constitution, which primarily include making laws, representing constituents' interests, conducting oversight of the executive branch, and controlling government spending through the power of the purse.

bicameralism

Refers to a legislature divided into two separate houses or chambers. In the United States, this structure is embodied by the House of Representatives and the Senate, reflecting a compromise between direct representation and equal state representation, and serving as a check on legislative power.

Casework

Direct assistance and problem-solving services provided by members of Congress and their staff to individual constituents, often involving bureaucracy navigation with federal agencies like the Social Security Administration or the Veterans Administration.

Caucus and conference

Groups of members of Congress sharing common interests or party affiliation. In the House, Democrats refer to their organization as a 'caucus,' while Republicans use 'conference.' These groups meet to discuss legislative strategy, nominate leaders, and develop party positions on policy issues.

Censure

A formal statement of disapproval from a legislative body against one of its members, often used as a disciplinary measure for misconduct, which can impact a member's standing or committee assignments but does not remove them from office.

Cloture

A procedural motion in the Senate that allows a supermajority of 60 senators (three-fifths of the full Senate) to limit debate on a bill or other matter, thereby ending a filibuster and forcing an up-or-down vote.

Committee chairs

The lawmaker who presides over a congressional committee, holding significant power to schedule hearings, choose witnesses, manage committee funds, and guide legislation through the committee process. Chairs are typically members of the majority party.

Committee on Rules (Rules Committee)

A powerful committee in the House of Representatives that determines the rules for debate on specific bills, including whether amendments can be offered, the length of debate, and the order of floor consideration, effectively acting as a 'gatekeeper' for legislation.

Committee system

The essential organizational structure of Congress, dividing legislative work into specialized groups (committees) that review, analyze, and revise proposed legislation, conduct oversight of government agencies, and investigate issues, playing a critical role in the legislative process and allowing members to develop expertise.

Committee types

The various categories of committees in Congress, including: Standing Committees (permanent, specific policy areas); Select (or Special) Committees (temporary, specific purposes); Joint Committees (members from both chambers, investigation/oversight); and Conference Committees (temporary, reconcile bill differences).

Conference committees

Temporary joint committees formed by members of both the House and Senate to resolve differences between conflicting versions of a bill passed by each chamber, producing a single compromise bill for a final vote.

Constituents

The residents of a state or district who are represented by an elected official. Members of Congress are elected to serve and advocate for the interests of their constituents.

Continuing resolutions

Legislative measures passed by Congress to provide temporary funding for federal government agencies and programs at their current or previous levels when a new fiscal year begins and regular appropriations bills have not yet been enacted, preventing a government shutdown.

Cracking

A gerrymandering strategy where a political party disperses voters of the opposing party across many districts, making them a minority in each district and thus unable to elect their preferred candidates.

Delegate

A model of representation where a legislator's primary role is to act as a direct agent of their constituents, faithfully reflecting their expressed preferences and voting according to their documented desires, even if it contradicts the legislator's own judgment.

Democratic Caucus

The formal organization of all Democratic members in the House of Representatives (and similarly in the Senate) that serves as a forum for discussing policy, developing legislative strategy, and electing party leaders.

Descriptive representation

The idea that elected representatives should demographically mirror the characteristics of their constituents, such as race, gender, religion, or socioeconomic status, believing that shared experiences lead to better advocacy.

Discharge petition

A procedural mechanism in the House of Representatives that allows a majority of members (218 signatures) to bring a bill out of committee and directly to the floor for a vote, bypassing the committee chair and legislative leadership who might be blocking it.

earmarks

Specific provisions within appropriation bills that direct federal funds or expenditures to be spent on particular projects, programs, or institutions within a specific congressional district or state, often secured by individual members of Congress for their constituents or local interests.

Electoral connection

The idea, popularized by David Mayhew, that members of Congress are primarily motivated by the desire for reelection, and that this desire shapes their legislative behavior, constituent service, and policy positions.

Filibuster

A procedural tactic used in the Senate by a minority of senators to delay or block a vote on a bill, resolution, or other measure by continuously extending debate, preventing a vote from occurring. It can only be ended by a cloture vote.

Formal powers of congress

The specific powers granted to Congress by the Constitution, primarily outlined in Article I, Section 8, including the powers to tax, borrow money, regulate commerce, declare war, raise and support armies, establish federal courts, and make all laws 'necessary and proper' for carrying into execution the foregoing powers.

Franking privilege

The right of members of Congress to send mail to their constituents postage-free, typically used for official business such as newsletters, surveys, and announcements, enabling them to communicate with the public without personal cost.

Gerrymandering

The practice of drawing electoral district boundaries in a way that gives an unfair advantage to one political party or group over another, often resulting in strangely shaped districts. Common tactics include 'cracking' and 'packing'.

gridlock

A situation in which government is unable to act or pass legislation, often due to partisan divisions, ideological differences, or procedural obstacles (like the filibuster), leading to legislative stagnation and inaction.

Hold

A procedural tactic in the Senate where an individual senator informs the floor leader that they do not wish a bill or other measure to reach the floor for consideration. This request can prevent a bill from being brought to a vote unless specific conditions are met.

House of Representatives

The lower chamber of the U.S. Congress, with 435 members apportioned among the states based on population. Members serve two-year terms and are considered more responsive to public sentiment due to their frequent elections and smaller constituencies.

How a bill becomes a law

The complex process through which a legislative proposal is introduced, debated, amended, and eventually enacted into law: 1. Introduction; 2. Committee Action; 3. Floor Debate & Vote; 4. Referral to Other Chamber; 5. Conference Committee (if needed); 6. Presidential Action.

Impeachment power

The constitutional power granted to the House of Representatives to formally charge (impeach) a civil officer of the United States with 'Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.' The Senate then conducts a trial to determine guilt or innocence and potentially remove the official from office.

Incumbency advantage

The electoral benefit derived from already holding office, which provides incumbents with significant advantages over challengers, such as name recognition, access to media, fundraising capabilities, a congressional franking privilege, and a record of constituent service (casework).

Incumbent

The current holder of an elected office, who typically possesses significant advantages over challengers in elections, including name recognition, access to campaign funds, a professional staff, and the ability to provide constituent services.

Joint Committees

Congressional committees composed of members from both the House of Representatives and the Senate, typically established to conduct studies, investigations, or perform routine tasks, but generally lacking the authority to report legislation.

Legislative oversight

The process by which Congress, through its committees, monitors and supervises the implementation of laws and the activities of the executive branch agencies to ensure that they are executing laws as intended, managing funds efficiently, and protecting public interests. This includes hearings, investigations, and budget reviews.

Log rolling

A legislative practice where members of Congress agree to support each other's unrelated bills or amendments in exchange for reciprocal support at a later time, facilitating the passage of legislation that might otherwise face defeat due to lack of broad support.

Majority leader

The legislative leader selected by the majority party in either the House of Representatives or the Senate. The House Majority Leader assists the Speaker, while the Senate Majority Leader is the most powerful figure in the Senate, responsible for scheduling legislation and guiding the party's agenda.

Majority whip

An assistant to the Majority Leader in both the House and Senate, responsible for counting votes on proposed legislation, ensuring party discipline by 'whipping up' support for party-backed bills, and communicating party positions to members.

markup

The process by which a congressional committee or subcommittee debates, amends, and rewrites proposed legislation. During a markup session, committee members make changes to the text of a bill before deciding whether to recommend it to the full chamber for consideration.

Minority leader

The legislative leader selected by the minority party in either the House of Representatives or the Senate. This leader acts as the primary spokesperson for the minority party, organizes opposition to the majority's agenda, and attempts to develop alternative policy proposals.

Minority whip

An assistant to the Minority Leader in both the House and Senate, responsible for coordinating party strategy, maintaining party discipline, gathering information on how members plan to vote, and communicating the minority party's position to its members.

Minority-majority districts

Congressional districts drawn to ensure that a racial or ethnic minority group constitutes a majority of voters in that district, often to enhance their chances of electing a representative from their group. This practice is often debated for its constitutionality and impact on general electoral fairness.

Omnibus legislation

A single legislative bill that encompasses a wide array of separate matters, combining multiple, often unrelated, individual bills or provisions into one large measure. This approach is frequently used to simplify the legislative process, especially for complex appropriations bills or major policy packages.

Open rule, restricted rule, closed rule

Specific rules determined by the House Rules Committee that govern floor debate on a bill: Open Rule (allows any germane amendments); Restricted Rule (limits amendments); Closed Rule (severely limits or prohibits amendments).

Packing

A gerrymandering strategy where a political party concentrates voters of the opposing party into a few districts, thus minimizing their influence in other districts and maximizing the number of seats the majority party can win.

Party unity

The extent to which members of a political party vote together on roll call votes in Congress, indicating the coherence and discipline within a party and its ability to achieve its legislative goals.

Party vote

A roll call vote in Congress where the majority of one party votes in opposition to the majority of the other party. These votes are indicative of partisan division and are often used as a measure of party unity.

Permanent campaign

The phenomenon where elected officials are constantly engaged in fundraising and campaigning activities during their entire term, often blurring the line between governing and campaigning, driven by the desire for reelection and continuous media scrutiny.

Pocket veto

A special type of veto power that the President can exercise. If Congress adjourns within 10 days of submitting a bill to the President and the President neither signs nor vetoes it, the bill does not become law, and Congress cannot override it.

politico

A model of representation where a legislator acts as both a delegate and a trustee, balancing the expressed wishes of their constituents with their own judgment and conscience, depending on the issue. They might defer to constituents on salient issues but rely on their own expertise for more complex or less visible matters.

Pork barrel projects

Legislation that provides tangible benefits, such as jobs, new infrastructure, or services, to constituents in a particular district or state, and which is often sponsored by a member of Congress to gain favor with their voters, often referred to as 'pork' due to the perception of wasteful spending.

President Pro Tempore

A high-ranking senator of the majority party who presides over the Senate in the absence of the Vice President. The President Pro Tempore is largely an honorific position, typically held by the most senior member of the majority party, and is third in the line of presidential succession.

Presidential coattails

The phenomenon where a popular presidential candidate helps congressional candidates of the same party win elections in certain districts. This effect suggests that voters are more likely to support a candidate if they are associated with a popular president.

Presidential systems

A system of government where the executive branch (President) is distinct from and independent of the legislative branch (Congress), with both branches separately elected and possessing their own powers. This contrasts with parliamentary systems where the executive derives its legitimacy from the legislature.

Ranking member

The most senior member of the minority party on a congressional committee. The ranking member serves as the minority party's leader on that committee and plays a key role in developing the party's legislative strategy and opposition to the majority.

Reapportionment

The process by which the 435 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives are reallocated among the states every ten years following the national census, based on changes in state populations. States that gain population may gain seats, while those that lose population may lose seats.

Redistricting & apportionment

Redistricting is the process of redrawing electoral district boundaries within states to account for population shifts and changes in the number of congressional seats after reapportionment, which is the allocation of these seats among the states based on population. Redistricting is often controlled by state legislatures and prone to gerrymandering.

Republican Conference

The formal organization of all Republican members in the House of Representatives (and similarly in the Senate) that serves as a forum for discussing policy, developing legislative strategy, and electing party leaders.

Roll call vote

A vote in the House or Senate where each member's vote is individually recorded and published, typically by calling out names or using an electronic voting system. This method publicly identifies how each legislator voted on a particular measure, holding them accountable to constituents.

Safe district

A congressional district in which the incumbent party typically wins by a large margin (generally 55% or more of the vote), making the seat highly secure for the incumbent and less competitive for challengers.

Select committees

Temporary congressional committees established for a limited time and a specific purpose, such as to investigate a particular issue or conduct a study, without the authority to propose legislation.

Senate

The upper chamber of the U.S. Congress, consisting of 100 members, with two members representing each state regardless of population. Senators serve six-year terms and are generally considered more deliberative and stable, with a focus on broader national issues.

Seniority

The informal rule in Congress that assigns greater influence and desirable committee assignments to members who have served longer in the institution, though its strict application has somewhat diminished over time.

Seniority system

An unwritten tradition in Congress that generally awards committee chairs to the longest-serving member of the majority party on that committee, and the ranking minority member position to the longest-serving member of the minority party on that committee. While less rigid now, seniority still plays a significant role in determining influence and power.

Signing statements

Written pronouncements issued by the President upon signing a bill into law, which can include interpretations of the law's intent, pronouncements on its constitutionality, or instructions to executive agencies regarding its implementation. These statements can sometimes be controversial for potentially altering legislative intent.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives and the leader of the majority party in the House. The Speaker is the most powerful figure in the House, controlling the legislative agenda, influencing committee assignments, and acting as a national spokesperson for the party.

Standing committees

Permanent legislative committees in both the House and Senate that consider bills within a specific subject area, such as agriculture, finance, or foreign affairs, and play a crucial role in the legislative process by reviewing and amending legislation.

Subcommittees

Smaller units within a standing committee that are created to specialize in specific policy areas, conduct more detailed examinations of legislation, hold hearings, and refine bills before reporting them back to the full committee.

Substantive representation

The idea that elected representatives should advocate for the interests and policy preferences of their constituents, regardless of whether they share demographic characteristics with them. Focuses on policy outcomes rather than shared identity.

Ticket splitting

The practice where voters cast ballots for candidates from different political parties in the same election, choosing a Republican for one office (e.g., President) and a Democrat for another (e.g., Senator or Representative), rather than voting a straight party line.

Trustee

A model of representation where a legislator is entrusted by their constituents to use their own best judgment, expertise, and conscience to make decisions on policy matters, even if it occasionally diverges from the immediate desires of their voters, believing they are acting in the long-term best interest of the constituency.

Unanimous consent agreements

A request on the floor of the Senate for all senators to agree to suspend a rule or procedure, or to expedite consideration of a bill. If even one senator objects, the agreement is blocked. They are commonly used to set terms for debate, limit amendments, or schedule votes, streamlining Senate procedures.

Whip system

The organizational structure within both the House and Senate, led by the Majority and Minority Whips, designed to ensure party discipline, count votes, facilitate communication among party members, and persuade members to vote in line with the party's official position.