Psych Unit 0

Scientific < Personal Experiences

• objectivity vs subjectivity

• generalizability

• controlling variables

• replicability + peer reviews

• accumulation of knowledge

scientific studies provide the objective, reliable, and generalized data required for a robust understanding of human behavior

Objectivity vs Subjectivity

minimizes individual bias and prejudices for an unbiased observation

Generalizability

findings apply to broader groups and diverse populations, not single cases

Controlling Variables

isolates and controls factors to establish a clear cause and effect relationship

Replicability and Peer Review

results are verified through repetition and expert scrutiny

Accumulation of Knowledge

contributes to a growing, evidence based understanding over time

Biological Perspective

product of physiological factors (brain chemistry, neurotransmitters, hormones, genetics, diseases)

causes of mental illness: biological processes, genetics or disease

treatment: medications, shock therapy, psyco-surgery

Evolutionary Perspective

natural processes and behaviors have evolved over time to allow humans to adapt and survive

methods: lab experiments, field studies, surveys, brain imaging, comparative analysis- including studies of non-human animals

-Example: trait of jealousy

Behavioral Perspective

behavior is the product of what we have learned in our environment through classical, operant, and social conditioning

Nurture over Nature

Methods: studying and modifying observable behaviors through systematic manipulation of environmental factors

Causes of Mental Illness: maladaptive learned associations between response to stimuli

Cognitive Perspective

behavior is the product of our thoughts and memories and perceptions

Methods: controlled experiments, psychobiological research, self reports, case studies, naturalistic observation, computer simulations

Causes of Mental illnesses: maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and emotions

Humanistic Perspectives

behavior is a product of free will, individual choices and personal growth

Methods: in-depth interviews, observation, open-ended questionnaires

Causes of Mental Illnesses: inability to realizes one’s potential lack of social support

Psychodynamic Perspective

behavior is the product of unconscious thoughts and childhood experiences

methods: psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapy

Causes of Mental Illnesses: unconscious processes, unresolved past conflict and trauma

Social-Cultural Perspectives

mental processes and behaviors are impacted by a person’s gender, culture, religion, ethnicity, income level and environment

methods: cross-culture case studies, quasi experiments, correlational studies, observations

Biopsychological Model

model of study and treatment of mental illnesses that examine the interactions between the patients biology, personality and social influences

Hypothesis

predicted outcome of an experiement

Research Variables

independent, dependent, cofounding; operationalized

Method/Procedure

experiment, observations, case study, correlation, meta analysis

Statistics

what do the #’s tell us

Results

what do the findings tell us?

Argument

using the evidence, what can you logically determine

IV

is the cause the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates

DV

the measured effect or outcome that depends on that change

Cofounding variables

any variable that effects the DV but is not the IV

Operationalize

to make the behavior more specific

Meta-Analysis

quantitive statistical method to combine and analyze the results of multiple independent studies on the same topic

-non experimental

Case Study

a non-experimental technique used to study individuals or small groups with pre-existing conditions that otherwise cannot be ethically tested

-usually longitudinal

Naturalistic observation

a non-experimental technique used to describe behavior not explain it, the behavior is observed in a natural setting without manipulation and can include data collected online

Correlational Studies

a study where the independent variable is not manipulated by the researcher

-surveys

-more random the sample = stronger data

Experimental Research relies on?

Validity- the degree to which the results accurately reflect what the research is measuring

Reliability- the consistency of a study in terms of the extent to which a test or measure produces the same results in repeated attempts

Research Design Elements

1. Method Type: experimental or not, causation or correlation

2. Design Type: quantitative (design that relies on numerical or quantifiable data) qualitative (design that relies on in-depth narrative data)

3. Allocation Method

4. Sampling Method

Longitudinal Studies

observational research following the same cohort of participants over a significant duration

Benefits:

-stability and change: tracks development and individual over time

-causation: helps establish temporal precedence in relationships (good relationships)

-reduce bias

Cross-Sectional Studies

observational research analyzing data from distinct population samples at one specific point in time

Benefits:

-efficiency: much faster

-cost effective: fewer resources

-snapshots: differences in ages now (wider range)

Random Allocation

determines which group a participants will be assigned to by chance

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

• Volunteer/Self Selective

• Convenience/Opportunity

-readily available, nearby, willing to participate

Sampling Bias

W.E.I.R.D (western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic)

Y.A.V.I.S (young, affluent, verbal, intelligent, social)

Probability Based Sampling

• Random Sampling

-define population, decide sample size, random selection, collect data

• Stratified Sampling

-divide the entire population into distinct subgroups, based on shared characteristics then you draw a simple random sample from each

• Systematic Sampling

-random starting point from an ordered list of the population, the select every nth element from that point forward

Ethics

C.A.R.D.U.D

C

consent

-psychologists must receive before the experiment after explaining the studies procedures and purpose

-participants must be aware of the risks

A

anonymity- confidential

-collected data must not have names and is untraceable

-they can assign codes and avoid asking for names/ addresses

R

right to withdraw- quit without reprocussions

-participants can leave whenever

-informed at the beginning/ no pressure

1st D

deception- must be minimal

-researchers should avoid unless study permits

• Deception by commission: researcher deliberately misleads participants (false instructions)

• Deception by ommision: researchers don’t deliberately withhold info but withhold certain information about the study’s purpose or design

U

undue stress or harm

-researchers must protect from mental + physical harm

-level of stress cannot be greater than everyday life

2nd D

debriefing- reveal findings including deception

-researcher must discuss procedure+ finding

-goal is to ensure participants leave in a similar state of mind

Statistics

the numerical data that shows the meaning of an experiment

Descriptive Statistics

summarize and describes the quantitative info from population or range

-uses correlation coefficients

-visualized with table, chart, graph

central tendency: mean, median, mode

mean

average

median

middle number if even add them both then divide

mode

number that appears the most

Inferential Statisics

used to test hypothesizes and predict and generalize to larger populations

-attempts to reach a conclusion

-statistical significance

measures of variation

range= differences between highest and lowest numbers

standard deviation= average distance of each score from the mean

Percentage rank

the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal or lower than a given score

Skewed Distribution

a measure of the asymmetry of a distribution

• negatively skewed= mean < median< mode

• positively skewed= mean > median > mode

Bimodal Distributions

distributions with two distinct peaks

-two separate groups or populations

-two underlying processes affecting the data

Statistical Significance

probability that the results of a study are not due to chance

tells us if an affect exists but it tell us how meaningful or impactful that effect is

P-Value

represents the probability of obtaining results as extreme as those observed in the study assuming the null hypothesis is true

Effect Size

measures the magnitude or strength of a relationship if the relationship between variables or the difference between groups