Social Influences on Child Development

Authoritative Parenting

Combines warmth and responsiveness with adaptive control techniques. Parents explain rules and encourage responsibility. Leads to the best outcomes for children: high self-control, self-esteem, social maturity.

Authoritarian Parenting

Combines high control with little warmth. Hard work, respect, and obedience are demanded; independence is discouraged. They do not explain their rules and decisions.

Indulgent-Permissive Parenting

Combines warmth and acceptance with little control. They rarely use punishment and accept their children's behaviour. Children tend to be impulsive, rebellious, and poor achievers.

Warmth in Parenting

Children whose parents show high warmth are more likely to feel secure, happy, and tend to be more well-behaved than children of parents low in warmth.

Control in Parenting

Effective control involves setting appropriate standards, enforcing them, and trying to anticipate conflicts. Neither too much nor too little control is desirable.

Authoritative Parents

Authoritative parents are warm, attentive, and sensitive to their child's needs. They are highly involved in their child's daily activities.

Authoritarian Parents

Authoritarian parents often engage in psychological control, degrading their children by mocking them or putting them down.

Indulgent-Permissive Parents

Indulgent-permissive parents allow their children to make decisions for themselves at an age when they're not mature enough to be making those decisions.

Outcomes of Authoritative Parenting

The children of authoritative parents tend to be more responsible, self-reliant, friendly, and have higher self-esteem compared to children whose parents have one of the other parenting styles.

Outcomes of Authoritarian Parenting

Children have lower self-esteem; they are unhappy and anxious.

Outcomes of Indulgent-Permissive Parenting

Children tend to be impulsive, rebellious, and poor achievers.

Communication in Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parents place a premium on communication, encouraging their children to express their feelings, thoughts, and desires.

Control Techniques in Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parents exercise firm, reasonable control and insist on maturity that is appropriate for a child's age.

Psychological Control in Authoritarian Parenting

To exert control, authoritarian parents yell, criticize, and threaten.

Example of Authoritarian Parenting

In the Netflix TV show Big Mouth, Andrew's father Marty Glouberman is a prototypical example of an authoritarian parent.

Indulgent-Permissive Decision Making

Indulgent-permissive parents might allow their children to eat dinner whenever they want or stay up as late as they want, even on a 'school night'.

Authoritarian Parenting Behavior

Authoritarian parents do not explain their rules; they might say, 'You do this because I said so, and that's final!'.

Authoritarian Parenting and Hostility

When frustrated, children of authoritarian parents tend to react with hostility and, like their parents, resort to force when they don't get their way.

Indulgent-Permissive Parenting and Autonomy

Instead of gradually granting children autonomy, indulgent-permissive parents allow their children to make decisions for themselves.

Characteristics of Authoritative Parenting

Authoritative parents encourage autonomy by permitting children to make their own decisions when they're ready.

Characteristics of Authoritarian Parenting

Authoritarian parents demand hard work, respect, and obedience while discouraging independence.

Characteristics of Indulgent-Permissive Parenting

Indulgent-permissive parents rarely use punishment and accept their children's behavior.

Regina's Mom

A character from Mean Girls who serves cocktails to her daughter and friends, claiming to be a 'cool Mom'.

Phil Dunphy

A character from Modern Family who tries hard to be cool but often relies on his wife for discipline.

Permissive Parenting

A parenting style where parents are indulgent and may believe they cannot influence their child's behavior.

Indulgent-Permissive Parents

Parents who provide little guidance and have children that tend to have poor self-control and engage in more antisocial behavior.

Uninvolved Parenting

A parenting style characterized by little warmth or control, where parents are generally indifferent and overwhelmed with stress.

Outcomes of Uninvolved Parenting

Children tend to have low self-esteem, are aggressive, and moody, and parents spend very little time with them.

Neglectful Parenting

An extreme case of uninvolved parenting where parents fail to provide basic needs and guidance.

Authoritative Parenting

The most effective parenting style, balancing restrictiveness and autonomy, leading to better child outcomes.

Engagement in Authoritative Parenting

Involves verbal give-and-take that promotes intellectual development and strong attachment to parents.

Longitudinal Research on Authoritative Parenting

Indicates that this style promotes maturity and adjustment in children of diverse temperaments.

Autonomy Granting

A practice in authoritative parenting that allows children to take responsibility for their behavior.

Limits in Parenting

Children need limits but also opportunities to develop autonomy as they mature.

Effectiveness of Punishment

Generally less effective than reinforcement; should be applied swiftly, consistently, and explained to the child.

Positive Reinforcement

More effective than punishment for undesirable behavior, encouraging good behavior instead.

Inconsistency in Punishment

Punishing inconsistently creates confusion rather than learning for the child.

Severe Punishments

Can lead to undesirable side effects, such as increased aggression in children.

Withdrawal of Privileges

A form of negative punishment that is often more effective than positive punishment.

Time-Out

A method that gives children time to think about their actions and how to behave differently in the future.

Explaining Punishment

When children are punished, the reason should be explained fully, as reasoning combined with punishment is more effective.

Co-regulation

A parenting approach in middle childhood where parents oversee while allowing children to manage daily activities.

Middle childhood

The pre-teen or 'tween' years when children's independence grows and time spent with parents declines.

Co-regulation

A relationship dynamic that grows out of a warm, cooperative relationship based on mutual respect between parents and children.

Changing Expectations

The shift in parents' and children's expectations of behavior and independence during middle childhood.

Helicopter parents

Parents who hover over their children, often past the time when the child should be independent.

Nuclear family

A family structure consisting of two heterosexual parents and a stay-at-home mother, typical in the 1950s.

Single Parent Families

Families consisting of one parent raising children, which comprise approximately 25% of Canadian children.

Expectations of proper behaviour

Parents' higher expectations of appropriate behavior during middle childhood compared to early childhood.

Public affection embarrassment

Children in middle childhood often feel embarrassed by public displays of affection from their parents.

Inconsistencies in parenting

Children may point out contradictions in their parents' behavior, such as swearing while prohibiting it.

Financial hardship in single-parent families

Many single-parent families face increased financial challenges, leading to adjustment problems for children.

Cultural differences in behavior expectations

Different cultures have varying timetables for expectations of proper social behavior.

Autonomy

The ability for children to make their own decisions and learn from their own mistakes as they grow older.

Monitoring from a distance

Parents need to oversee their children's activities without being overly controlling.

Children's need for parental support

Despite seeking independence, school-age children still recognize their need for parental support.

Embarrassment in schoolyard

Expressions of affection at home may be welcomed but can be embarrassing in a school setting.

Trends in family structures

Since the 1960s, there have been significant societal changes resulting in more variety in family structures.

Career-oriented women and parenting

An increasing trend of women over 30 deciding to have or adopt children without a partner.

Adjustment problems for children

Children in single-parent families may face adjustment issues due to financial and time constraints.

Expectations of children's behavior

Parents are more critical of mistakes made by children during middle childhood than in early childhood.

Micromanaging extracurriculars

Helicopter parenting often includes directing children's playtime and managing their extracurricular activities.

Dramatic societal changes

Changes since the 1960s have led to a decline in the traditional family structure and an increase in diverse family forms.

Divorce and remarriage

Significant changes in family structures since the 1960s include divorce and remarriage.

Life challenges for single parents

Single parents may struggle with less time for their children due to full-time work and household responsibilities.

Expectations of children's autonomy

Parents need to allow children more autonomy as they age to foster independence and self-reliance.

Authoritative Parenting

Practicing authoritative parenting and having a strong social support network can help ameliorate some of the negative effects.

Same-Sex Parents

Children are no different from children of opposite-sex parents in terms of mental health and peer relations.

Claims about Non-Heterosexual Parents

Claims that children raised by non-heterosexual parents will be poorly adjusted are patently false.

Longitudinal Studies on Same-Sex Parents

Longitudinal studies suggest that children of gay and lesbian parents are just as cognitively, emotionally, and morally mature as children with heterosexual parents.

Divorce Rate in Canada

In Canada, about 38% of couples divorce; the rate peaks in the 5th year of marriage.

Divorce Rate Increase

There was a significant increase in the divorce rate from 1960 to 1985.

Factors Influencing Divorce

Major factors include changes in laws and social norms.

Social Acceptance of Divorce

Divorce used to be socially unacceptable.

Current Divorce Rate in Canada

The divorce rate in Canada has remained in the 35-40 percent range since the mid-1980s.

Divorces Involving Children

Almost half of divorces involve children.

Childhood After Divorce

Some children spend the rest of their childhood in a single-parent home; others grow up in blended families.

Second Marriages and Divorce

A parent's second marriage can also end in divorce.

Nature of Divorce

Divorce is not a single event but a transition leading to new living arrangements and changes.

Factors Affecting Children's Adjustment

How well children fare depends on several factors.

Beliefs about Divorce

The 'broken home' is a primary cause of maladjustment and delinquency.

Keeping Unhappy Marriages

An unsatisfactory marriage is worth 'keeping together' for the sake of the children.

Children's Benefits from Divorce

While there are adjustment problems for children whose parents divorce, many are much better off when not exposed to daily conflicts between unhappy parents.

Stress Reduction and Parenting

Children are likely to benefit if the ending of a stormy marriage reduces stress and enables parents to be more sensitive and responsive.

Immediate Consequences of Divorce

Sharp drop in income (especially for mother-headed households).

Maternal Stress Post-Divorce

High maternal stress, depression, and anxiety (mothers of young children are at higher risk).

Disruption in Routine

Disruption in daily routine (meals, bedtimes, chores, activities).

Parenting Effectiveness Post-Divorce

Less effective parenting (parents may shift away from authoritative).

Harsh Parenting by Mothers

Mothers' parenting may become harsh and inconsistent.

Fathers' Parenting Style

Fathers who see children occasionally tend to be permissive and indulgent.

Joint Custody Benefits

It's becoming more common for parents to share joint custody, which is associated with better outcomes if both parents are cooperative, caring, and supportive ('conscious uncoupling').

Severe Problems in Children Post-Divorce

20-25% of children display severe problems.

Child's Age and Divorce Impact

Younger children tend to blame themselves.

Older Children's Reactions to Divorce

Older children may become depressed, engage in undesirable behaviour (acting out, early sexual activity, drugs/alcohol).

Gender Differences in Adjustment

Boys are at greater risk for serious adjustment problems.

Boys and Parental Conflict

More prone to misbehaving with parental conflict and inconsistent discipline.

Emotional Support for Boys

May receive less emotional support.

Negative Outcomes for Boys

Boys of primary school age with high devotion to their father may experience the most negative outcomes.

Long-Term Problems for Girls

Girls face more long-term problems.

Girls' Reactions to Divorce

More likely to become withdrawn and depressed instead of acting out.