Society and Culture

Macrosociology

The study of large-scale social systems and structures, focusing on societal trends and patterns rather than individual interactions.

Functionalism

comes from macrosociology. Looks at society as a whole and how institutions that make up society adapt to maintain stability and order.

Conflict Theory

A macro perspective. The idea that society is made of institutions that benefit powerful and create inequalities and that these inequalities lead to social conflict and change.

Microsociology

The study of small-scale social interactions and individual behavior (families, schools etc.)Looks at how individual interactions affect larger groups.

Symbolic Interactionism

A microperspective. Focuses on individuals and how the significance they give to objects, events, and symbols in their lives.

Social Institutions

structures and mechanisms of social order governing the behavior of individuals within a community, such as family, education, religion, and government.

Hidden Curriculum

The unwritten, unofficial lessons, values, and expectations that students learn in school, which are not part of the formal curriculum.

Social Institutions: Churches

established religious bodies in a larger society

Ecclesia

a religious organization that claims to include most or all members of a society, often recognized as the state religion.

Sects

smaller religious groups that have broken away from a larger denomination, often with distinct beliefs and practices.

Cults

religious groups that are often considered unorthodox or extreme, typically led by a charismatic leader and characterized by their deviant practices and beliefs.

Secularization

the process by which religious institutions, practices, and beliefs lose their social significance.

Fundamentlism

reaction to secularization, go back to strict beliefs. Creates problems when people become too extreme

Social Institution: Government

an organized structure that governs a community, creating and enforcing laws and policies, and providing order and stability in society.

Democracy

a system of government in which power is vested in the people, who rule either directly or through freely elected representatives.

Dictatorship

a form of government in which absolute power is concentrated in a leader or a small group, often characterized by the suppression of political opposition and civil liberties.

Communism

a political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society, where all property is publicly owned and each person works and is paid according to their abilities and needs.

Monarchy

a form of government where a single person, the monarch, rules the state, often for life and by hereditary right.

Social Institution: Economy

a structured system that organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in society, influencing social behavior and relationships.

Capitalism

an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production and operation for profit, with minimal government intervention.

Socialism

an economic system where the means of production are owned and regulated by the community as a whole, aiming to achieve greater social and economic equality.

Functionalist perspective

division of labor in government and economy is functionalist. Everyone is required to have responsibility in society.

Social Institution: Healthcare

a structured system that provides medical services, promotes health, and addresses health-related issues in society, influencing individual and community well-being.

Medicalization

the process by which human conditions and problems are defined and treated as medical issues, often leading to increased intervention and regulation.

Sick Role

a concept in sociology that describes the social rights and obligations of individuals who are ill, including exemption from normal responsibilities and the expectation to seek help.

Illness experience

the subjective experience of individuals living with illness, encompassing their emotional, social, and physical responses.

Social Epidemiology

the study of how social factors affect the distribution and determinants of health and disease in populations (health disparities)

Social Theories

Social Theories: Functionalism

a sociological perspective that views society as a system of interconnected parts, each serving a purpose to maintain stability and social order (large scale perspective)

Emile Durkheim

a foundational sociologist known for his work on social integration and collective consciousness, significantly contributing to functionalist theory.

Functionalism says society is heading towards

stability and equilibrium through social institutions.

Durkheim imagined a balance between

institutions and social facts

Social Facts

ways of thinking and acting formed by society.

Manifest vs. Latent Functions

The distinction between the intended, obvious consequences of institutions (manifest functions) and the hidden, unintended consequences of institutions (latent functions) that may also impact society.

Small societies are held together by

similarities

Large societies are held together by

interdependence

Social change threatens

mutual dependence, institutions only adapt just enough to maintain mutual interdepenence.

Social Theories: Conflict Theory

a perspective that views social conflict as a driving force in society, emphasizing the role of power disparities and competition for resources.

Marx believed societies evolved through what stages?

feudalism, capitalism, and finally socialism

Class consciousness

awareness of one's social class and its interests, leading to collective action against oppressive structures.

Thesis vs Antithesis

the two opposing forces in dialectical materialism that drive societal change, where the thesis represents the existing state and the antithesis challenges it, leading to a synthesis.

Ludwig Gumplowicz

expanded on Marx by proposing that society is shaped by war/conquest, cultural/ethnic conflicts lead to certain groups becoming dominant over others

Social Theories: Social Constructism

argues that people actively shape their reality through social interactions. Knowledge isn’t real and only exists because we give reality through social agreement (nations, books wouldn’t exist without humans)

Weak social constructism states

that social constructs depend on brute facts

Strong social constructism states

whole of reality is dependent on language and social habits (no facts that just exist)

Institutional Facts

created by social conventions and do rely on other facts (we give value to money)

What are some drawbacks to the theory of social constructism?

Critics argue that social constructism can lead to relativism, undermining objective truth. It may also neglect the influence of biological and material factors on human behavior and social structures.

Social Theories: Symbolic Interactionism

a sociological perspective that focuses on the meanings individuals assign to social objects and interactions, emphasizing the subjective nature of reality. (small scale view)

George Mead developed theory of

Symbolic Interactionism , which emphasizes the role of social interactions in the development of self and society.

Subjective Meaning

the personal interpretation of experiences and events, shaped by individual perspectives and cultural contexts.

Herbet Blumer

Sociologist known for his work on symbolic interactionism and the concept of social reality. (we act based on meaning, different people assign different meanings, and meanings aren’t permanent)

What are some criticisms of symbolic interactionism theory?

Critics argue that symbolic interactionism overlooks larger social structures and influences, focusing too much on individual interactions. It may also neglect the role of power dynamics and fail to address social change comprehensively.

Social Theories: Feminist Theory

macro perspective, developed from feminist movement originating from conflict theory, focuses on stratification and inequalities in society. Examines women’s social role in education, family, and workforce.

Feminist Theory #1 : Gender Differences

Expectations for gender are passed down generation to generation. Examines how women’s position in social situations differ from men.

Feminist Theory # 2 Gender Inequality

The unequal treatment and opportunities experienced by individuals based on their gender, often resulting in disparities in wealth, education, and social status.

Feminist Theory #3: Gender Oppression

women are oppressed and abused

Feminist Theory #4: Structural Oppression

women’s oppression is due to capitalism, patriarchy, and racism

Patriarchy

A social system in which men hold primary power, dominating in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property.

Social Theories: Rational Choice Theory

A theoretical framework that posits individuals make decisions by weighing the costs and benefits to maximize their utility, often used in economics and social sciences.

What is the main assumption of the rational choice theory?

it assumes that everything people do is fundamentally rational

How do we calculate the value of one’s actions according to rational choice theory?

1) completeness (every action can be ranked)

2) transitivity (since A is preferable to B, A is also preferable to C)

3) independence of irrelevant alternatives

Social Theories: Exchange Theory

Individuals weigh the costs and rewards of a relationship to determine whether to continue or disengage from it.

• Rewards might include affection, support, status, or material benefits.

• Costs could include time, effort, emotional strain, or financial investment. The decision to maintain or end a relationship often hinges on this balance.

What does exchange theory assume?

That behaviors that result in “reward” are likely to be repeated and that we form relationships to benefit ourselves

What are some criticisms of exchange theory?

Some people’s choices are limited by gender, ethnicity and class

Sexual vs Social Selection

A concept in evolutionary biology that distinguishes between the selection of traits based on reproductive success (sexual selection) and traits that enhance survival and social interactions (social selection).

Demographics

Statistical data relating to the population and particular groups within it, including age, race, gender, and income.

Dependency Ratio

A measure that compares the number of dependents (people aged 0-14 and over 65) to the working-age population (ages 15-64), indicating the economic burden on the productive population.

Life Course Theory

A multidisciplinary approach that examines the progression of an individual's life through various stages, emphasizing the impact of social, cultural, and historical contexts on development.

Age Stratification Theory

suggests age is a way of regulating behavior of a generation

Activity Theory

A theory proposing that staying active and engaged leads to greater satisfaction and well-being in older adults, countering the idea that withdrawal is a natural part of aging.

Disengagement Theory

A theory suggesting that as people age, they gradually withdraw from social interactions and relationships, which is seen as a natural and acceptable part of aging.

Continuity Theory

A theory that posits individuals tend to maintain consistency in their behaviors, activities, and relationships as they age, adapting strategies from earlier life stages to cope with aging.

Race and Ethnicity

Race refers to groups of people who share physical characteristics, while ethnicity pertains to cultural identity, including language, traditions, and heritage.

Race Formation Theory

looks at how social/economic/political forces that result in racially constructed identities (sometimes differences are real, other times its defined by history)

Ethnicity is (more/less) statistically defined than racial group and (can/cant) change over time

statistically defined than racial group and can change over time

Racial Differences can cause drastic events such as

1. genocide or forced migration of populations.

2. intercolonialism (minorities segregated and exploited)

3. assimilation

Pluralism

encourages racial and ethnic variation

Immigration

the movement of people into a country to settle there.

Immigration can cause problems such as

1. too much demand on social services

2. too many skilled people leave their home country

3. fear/dislike of immigrants of different race

Sex, Gender, and Sexual Orientation

Media often portrays gender as

binary (male vs female)

What to consider when thinking about gender

1. biological

2. gender identity (what they identify as)

3. gender expression (gender they express)

4. attraction (gender they are romantically attracted to)

Gender queer vs transgender

Gender queer individuals may identify outside the traditional binary of male and female, while transgender individuals have a gender identity that differs from the sex assigned at birth.

Gender Schema Theory

A gender schema is a cognitive framework that organizes information related to gender, such as expectations about what is considered "appropriate" behavior, appearance, and roles for males and females. These schemas are based on societal norms, cultural beliefs, and personal experiences.

Gender Script

A gender script refers to the set of socially and culturally constructed expectations and norms that dictate how individuals should behave based on their gender. It is a form of social script that outlines the behaviors, roles, attitudes, and actions that society expects from people of a particular gender in various situations.

What’s the difference between gender schema and gender script?

Gender Schema refers to the cognitive framework or mental structures that individuals use to organize and interpret gender-related information. It shapes how people perceive and categorize behaviors, roles, and attributes as appropriate for males or females.

Gender Script, on the other hand, refers to the set of societal expectations or "rules" about how individuals should behave based on their gender in various situations. It's more about the social performance or enactment of gender roles in specific contexts.

Urbanization

movement of people from rural to to urban areas

Rural

anywhere with less than 1000 people per square mile

Urban areas

have over 1,000 people per square mile

Cities

Have over 50000 people

Metropolis

have over 500000 people

Megalopolis

multiple metropolises connected

Why do people move to urban areas?

more job opportunities, education, healthcare

Suburbanization

movement away from cities

Exburbs

prosperous areas outside of city where people live and commute to work like suburbs

Urban Renewal

revamping old parts of cities to become better, but can lead to gentrification

Gentrification

the process of renovating urban neighborhoods, often resulting in the displacement of lower-income residents due to expensive cost of living

Rural Rebound

the phenomenon of people moving from urban areas back to rural regions, often seeking a better quality of life or lower cost of living.

Population Dynamics

the study of how and why populations change in size, distribution, and structure over time.

What 3 factors contribute to growth rate?

Fertility, migration and mortality