HAP Semester 1 Exam no AI

i made these ones use these not the other ones

Ploidy

refers to # of chromosome sets in a cell

Mitosis

occurs in somatic cells, daughter cells are diploidic

Meosis

produces gametae cells, results in 4 haploid daughter cells.

G1 Phase

Regular cell growth

G1 Checkpoint

checks that cell has received a signal to divide and that the extracellular environment is favourable for division.

G2 Checkpoint

checks that DNA is not damaged

S Phase

DNA replication occurs

G2 Phase

cell growth in preparation for cell division

M Phase

mitosis phase

Apoptosis

programmed cell death

Prophase

individual chromosomes become visible as chromatin, nuclear envelope breaks down

Metaphase

chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate

Anaphase

chromosomes seperate and move away from the metaphase plate

Telophase

chromosomes decondense and the nuclear envelope reforms

Cytokinesis

actin ring at the metaphase plate contracts, splitting the cell membrane

Meosis 1

replicated chromosomes exchange DNA segments in prophase 1 (homologous recombination)

Meosis 2

no DNA replication occurs in these cells, sister chromatids are seperated (haploid set of chromosomes)

Lateral Epithelial Membrane Specialisations

cell junctions (adhering, gap, tight)

Basal Epithelial Membrane Specialisations

basement membrane between epithelium and underlying CT. Basal lamina on elithelium, reticular lamina from CT.

Fibrocytes

maintain connective tissue

Fibroblasts

produce new connective tissue matrix and ground substance

Skeletal muscle structure

a loose CT endomysium surrounds each myocyte, a DICT perimysium surrounds a group of fibres to form a fascicle, the DICT epimysium forms the muscle proper.

Skeletal muscle innervation

somatic (voluntary) nervous system

Sarcomere

the contractile unit of a myocyte

Z disc

where sarcomeres join

I Band

a region with only thin filaments

H zone

a region of thick filaments with no thin filaments

A band

the region of the sarcomere where thick filaments exist

oligodendrocyte

myelinates many axons in the CNS

schwann cell

many of these myelinate sections of an axon in the PNS

astrocyte

a group of cells that provide physical structure around neurons

microglial cells

are small macrophages in the CNS that fight pathogens and clear debris

ependymal cells

line the ventricles of the brain and the spinal cord’s central canal, they produce and maintain CSF

satellite cells

support ganglia, surround neural cell bodies.

white matter

tracts of predominantly myelinated axons that transmit information between regions of grey matter

grey matter

recieves information from white matter and processes it, contains all neural cell types.

white adipocyte

contains one large lipid droplet, stores energy as fat and regulates matabolism

brown adipocyte

contains many small lipid droplets and many mitochondria, helps with thermoregulation in infants

afferent information

travelling toward the spinal cord

efferent info

travelling away from the spinal cord

saltatory conduction

nerve impulse jumps between nodes of Ranvier

layers of the epidermis

deep > stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidium, stratum corneum > superficial

Merkel cell

found in stratum basale, detect touch.

melanocyte

dendritic cell found in stratum basale that creates melanin for keratinocytes

Langerhans cells

interepidermal macrophages

papilliary dermis

layer of loose CT that forms the dermal papillae

reticular dermis

formed of DICT and elastin fibres, provides structure and elasticity to the skin, contains most accesory structures of the skin.

hypodermis

a layer of adipose and loose connective tissue

parts of the hair shaft

central > medulla > cortex > cuticle > outside

hair bulb

where hair grows from

arrector pili muscle

causes hairs to stand on end, innervated by the sympathetic nervous system

sebaceous gland

secrete sebum via holocrine secretion. sebum waterproofs the skin and keeps it supple, open to the surface via a hair follicle

eecrine sweat gland

simple coiled tubular gland, open onto the skin by sweat pores, undergo merocrine secretion (exocytosis). Sweat can be thermoregulatory or emotional.

apocrine sweat glands

simple coiled glands, open onto the skin via hair follicles, undergo merocrine secretion, glands are concentrated in axillary and anogenital areas. secretion controlled by the ANS, secretion may be controlled by sex hormones

thick skin

also called friction or glabrous skin, found only on plantar and palmar surfaces, up to 1.5mm thick, contains only eccrine sweat glands. Has significant interdigitations between the dermis and epidermis. Stratum corneum is significantly thicker than in thin skin.

thin skin

aslo called hairy skin, found everywhere except plantar and palmar surfaces. Is 0.07 to 0.15mm thick. may contain all accesory structures of the skin. Often have a flat dermal-epidermal junction.

Plasma B cell

produce antibodies when they are activated by binding to a raw pathogen antigen on their BCR.

CD4 Helper T Cell

co-ordinate active immune responses by activating other lymphocytes that bind to processes pathogen fragments on MHC-2 markers by releasing cytokines that cause cells to proliferate.

CD8 Cytotoxic cell

detect processed pathogen fragments on MHC-1 markers of body cells that have been infected with intracellular pathogens or have become cancerous.

Memory T/B cell

are a long-term form of immunological memory that are stored to mount a quick response to subsequent exposure to the same pathogen

lymphatic system

responsible for absorbing excess interstitial fluid, as well as transporting/storing antigen presenting cells, antibodies and lymphocytes

steps of the inflammatory response

Vasodilation - after pathogens are detected, chemokines are released, attracting phagocytes from the blood to the site. Compliment proteins signal Mast cells to produce histamine, dilating blood vessels and increasing their permeability to cells,
Phagocyte Migration - diapedisis of phagocytes out of blood to site, phagocytes begin to engulf and destroy pathogens
Tissue Repair - removal of left over debris/pathogens, wound healing begins, scab forms

process of phagocytosis

Chemotaxis - movement of phagocytes to damaged area

Adherence - the attachment of a phagocyte to a pathogen

Ingestion - formation of a phagosome + ingestion of a pathogen

Digestion - the use of lysosomes to degrade pathogen material

Elimination - destruction of the pathogen

clonal selection

lymphocytes undergo somatic recombination when they divide, causing them to have unique BCR/TCR’s.

clonal expansion

when a lymphocyte binds to an antigen, it processes a fragment and displays it on its MHC-2 marker, where a CD4 Helper T Cell activates it, causing it to proliferate rapidly

role of blood analysis in health and disease

Immune cell levels - high=bacterial infection, low=viral infection

Lipid/cholesterol levels - indicated cardiovascular and liver health

Liver Function - ALT and AST levels can indicate liver damage

Cardiac Markers - proteins like troponins are released from dying heart muscle

Renal Function - creatinine levels indicate diminished kidney health

ABO blood groups

the blood groups correspond to what antigens are present on the surface of red blood cells, and what antibodies are absent from blood plasma. O blood has no antigens, and both anti A and anti B antibodies.

rhesus blood group

rhesus + cells have D antigens. These antigens are not natural, and Rh+ blood can be given to a Rh- person once, but reactions will build upon subsequent exposure.

steps of haemostasis

1 - vessel spasm reduces blood flow

2 - platelet plug forms due to release of von Willebrand factor.

3 - clot retraction strengthens platelet plug

4 - once healed, clot breaks apart or dissolves

chondroblast

cell that secrets the ECM of cartillage

chondrocyte

cell that maintains the cartilage ECM

osteoblasts

cell that produces bone’s ECM

osteocyte

cell that maintains bone ECM

composition of cartillage ECM

GAG’s, water, hyaline (type 2 collagen), elastin, fibrocartillage

composition of bone ECM

hydroxyapatic proteins (mineralised with calcium and phosphate), type 1 collagen

appositional growth

cartillage surrounded by a perichondrium containing chondrogenic cells that expand outward

osteoclast

break down and reabsorb bone tissue

interstitial growth

cells within cartilage divide, occurs during embryonic development.

hyaline cartilage

the most common form of cartilage, found as cartilage joining bones and cartilage rings around trachea and bronchi. The precursor to bone in a developing skeleton. Normally surrounded by a DICT perichondrium with blood vessels that supply nutrients and remove waste (except articular cartilage)

articular cartillage

a form of hyaline cartilage that forms joint cavities. Articular cartilage lines the joint cavity, while the synovial membrane contains synovial fluid that provides nutrients, with an outer fibrous layer forming the joint capsule.

elastic cartilage

predominantly elastic fibres in the ECM, found in areas requiring flexible support (pinna of ear ect.) Has a perichondrium.

Fibrocartillage

lots of type 1 collagen, very stiff, almost incompressible. Found in intervertebral discs, articular discs of knee. no perichondrium, only interstitial growth.

bone

a form of CT with a mineralised ECM (mainly Ca and PO3. Has a periosteum, can be either compact or spongy.

epiphysis

the “head” of a long bone

metaphysis

the bridge between he head and shaft of a long bone

diaphysis

the shaft of a long bone

lamellae

concentric rings that form bone

compact bone

arranged in lamellae, with a central canal. Each central canal is lined with an endosteum containing a blood vessel. Collagen fibres have alternating orientations in adjacent lamellae, providing strength. The outside has a periosteum, with an outer fibrous layer and an inner osteogenic layer.

spongy bone structure

have lamellae but no central canals. Form spongy bone spicules/tuberculae. The outer osteogenic layer continues inside the bone via perforating canals as an endosteum, lining all inner surfaces.

axial skeleton

contains all vertebrae, head, neck and ribs.

appendicular skeleton

contains all limb bones

fibrous joint

bones joined by DICT, virtually no movement. (tibiofibular joint ect.)

cartilaginous joint

bones attached by cartillage, some flexibility. Form synchondroses’ and symphyses.

synovial joint

bones are held by DICT ligaments, smooth, cartilage-covered ends of bones are contained in a synovial cavity formed by a sleeve-like joint capsule. Lubricated by synovial fluid. Are free moving.

ligaments

thickened cartilaginous bands of the joint capsule attached to articulating bones around metaphyses. Some ligaments (hip/knee) are intraarticular, and join directly to the articular surface.

bursae

closed, flattened sacs of synovial membrane that lie between bone and tendons or ligaments. Contain synovial fluid. some are continuous with synovial cavities. bursa-like sheaths surround individual tendons for similar purposes.

endochondral ossification

bone forms on the surface of a hyaline cartilage model. Perichondral cells differentiate into a periosteum. Cartilage progressively calcifies, dies and is invaded by periosteal stem cells forming the primary ossification centre. Bone formation continues along the now developing diaphysis. Dead cartilage cells are lost, leaving a space to be filled with bone marrow. The bony collar extends to the epiphyses of the bone, where a similar process forms the secondary ossification centres. Bone expansion occurs until 2 zones of cartilage are left at each end. At aroudn 18 years old, the growth plates are replaced by bone.

intramembranous ossification

development of a new bone in connective tissue (usually embryonic CT) Mainly occurs in flat bones (skull ect.) begins in the mesenchyme. cartilage cells differentiate into osteoblasts, forming a bony matrix. they mature into osteocytes, trapping blood vessels in the newly forming bony matrix.

bone growth (adolescence)

chondrocytes in cartilage proliferate away from the ossification front, increasing the length of the cartilage. osteoclasts “chase” the chondrocytes, replacing cartilage with bone. eventually osteoclasts catch up and turn all cartilage to bone.

long bone growth in adolescents

continued division of chondrocytes in the growth plate, production, secretion and ossification of cartilage matrix in the growth plate. removal of calcified cartilage by osteoclasts, and replacement with bone matrix by endosteal osteoblasts.