2024 Final Exam Study Guide-Biology I

Flashcards for Biology I Final Exam Review

What are the cumulative material objectives for the final exam?

Read and interpret graphs, determine IV and DV, identify appropriate title, identify parts of an experiment (IV, DV, control group, constants, hypothesis, experimental group).

What organs are involved in Pulmonary circulation?

Lungs and heart

What organ is involved in Coronary circulation?

Heart

What area does Systemic circulation involve?

Whole body

Describe the form and function of arteries, veins, and capillaries.

Arteries move blood away from the heart, are muscular, and have pulses. Veins move blood to the heart and have valves. Capillaries are the site of exchange in lungs/body tissues and are the smallest vessels.

How does the circulatory system help maintain homeostasis?

Blood gases are detected by the brain, allowing the body to maintain normal carbon dioxide and oxygen levels. The heart pumps faster to increase gas exchange, which occurs in the lungs between capillaries and alveoli through diffusion. Carbon dioxide is exhaled, and oxygen is delivered to body cells/tissues.

How do the steps of the cardiac cycle create a heartbeat?

By coordinating the contraction and relaxation of the heart's chambers and valves. Systole pushes blood out of the heart into the arteries, and diastole allows the heart to fill with blood.

Describe the function of the nodes of the heart.

Nerve impulses travel through the heart to stimulate the beat; the SA Node is the pacemaker.

Describe the form and function of the chambers of the heart.

Atria receive blood from the body and lungs and pump it to the ventricles. Ventricles receive blood from the atria and pump it out to the lungs and the rest of the body.

Describe the form and function of the components of blood.

Plasma is the liquid portion of the blood. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen. White blood cells (leukocytes) help fight infection. Platelets are clotting factors.

What is the difference between diastole and systole?

Systole is the top number of blood pressure, involving blood moving from the atria to the ventricles during contraction, and Diastole is the bottom number, involving the ventricles relaxing and the atria contracting.

What is the pathway of blood through the heart and body?

Inferior and superior vena cava - right atrium - tricuspid (AV) valve - right ventricle - pulmonary valve - pulmonary artery - lungs - pulmonary vein - left atrium - mitral valve - left ventricle - aortic valve - aorta - to the rest of the body.

Explain how the respiratory system coordinates with the circulatory system.

Blood gases are detected by the brain. Gas exchange occurs in the lungs between capillaries and alveoli. Capillaries give carbon dioxide, and alveoli give oxygen through diffusion. Carbon dioxide is exhaled, and oxygen is brought to the body’s cells/tissues. The blood brings respiratory gases throughout the body.

Describe the form and function of all respiratory structures.

nose - pharynx - trachea - bronchi - bronchioles - alveoli/capillaries for gas exchange - back up through the bronchioles - bronchi - trachea - pharynx - mouth - carbon dioxide out.

What is the site of exchange for the respiratory system?

Capillaries and alveoli in the lungs

How is breathing regulated in response to pH levels in the blood?

The hypothalamus detects increased carbon dioxide levels, making the blood more acidic. The brain stimulates the diaphragm, and respirations increase to inhale more oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide.

Describe the processes of inhalation and exhalation.

Oxygen is inhaled and carbon dioxide is exhaled.

Explain how immunizations, antibiotics, sanitation, and hygiene has changed the spread of disease.

Immunizations, antibiotics, sanitation, and hygiene have changed the spread of disease by bringing different levels of Diseases like Endemic, Epidemic, Pandemic and Emergent Diseases

How has the death rate due to infectious disease changed throughout the past one hundred years?

Over the past 100 years, deaths due to infectious diseases have decreased due to vaccines, antibiotics, hygiene, and sanitation. However, there has been a small increase due to bacterial resistance.

What are antigens?

Any foreign substance that can stimulate an immune response

What was Louis Pasteur known for?

Pasteurization, the sterilization of a substance, especially a liquid

What was Alexander Flemming known for?

First antibiotic (penicillin)

What was Edward Jenner known for?

Developed the first vaccine for cowpox and smallpox

What is active immunity?

Your body is producing antibodies itself. Memory cells will remember how to fight pathogens on future exposure.

What is passive immunity?

Given antibodies from another source that can be used to produce temporary immunity.

What is the specific immunity?

3rd Line of Defense: Uses antigens on nonself cells, your body knows it is the enemy.

What is the non-specific immunity?

1st Line of Defense: Skin, mucus, saliva, and tears.

How are pathogens transmitted from host to host?

Person to person (direct or indirect), contaminated food or water, and animal to human.

What are the characteristics of B cells?

Mature and made in bone marrow and function in antibody mediated immunity.

What are the characteristics of T cells?

Made in bone marrow, Mature in Thymus, and Function in cell mediated immunity

What are the characteristics of antibodies?

Antibodies are compliments to the antigens on the surface of the pathogen that will neutralize or destroy the pathogen. They are produced by the plasma B cells

What is a bacterium?

Prokaryotic and unicellular (Ex. E.coli, salmonella, staph, strep)

What is a virus?

Not cells, but DNA/RNA surrounded by protein coat. Not living + requires host cell. Ex. Flu

How does the immune system protects from falling victim to the same illness.

A dead or weakened form of a pathogen is introduced into the body (in the form of a vaccine) to imitate a smaller immune response followed by production of antibodies. Memory B cells remember the infection in the event of exposure to that particular pathogen in the future.

What are the characteristics of a macrophage (phagocyte)?

A macrophage has the ability to locate and “eat” or “engulf” particles, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Macrophages are WBCs which are produced in our bone marrow.

What is antibody-mediated immunity?

Depends on the action of antibodies that circulate in the blood and lymph and is activated when antibodies embedded on the B cell surface bind to antigens on the pathogen surface.

What is a Cell Mediated Immunity?

Depends on macrophages and T cells, defends against viruses, fungi, and single celled pathogens and also protects against cancer!

What are vaccines made from?

A dead or weakened form of a pathogen is introduced into the body to imitate a smaller immune response; production of antibodies occurs and the memory B cells remember the infection in the event of exposure to that particular pathogen in the future.

What part of the immune system that HIV attacks?

Attacks key cells in the immune system, therefore, the body can’t protect itself from infections and HIV targets T cells. If we can’t activate T cells, we can’t activate the immune response

What are the characteristics of leukocytes?

The leukocyte, commonly known as the WBC (white blood cell), is a major component of the body’s defense against disease. Leukocytes protect the body against invading microorganisms, They originate in the bone marrow, they are very di erent from each other, they are far less numerous than erythrocytes,One of the most distinctive characteristics of WBCs is their movement.

What are the major parts of the immune system?

Nonspecific immunity (Physical barriers, chemical barriers), Specific Immunity (Cell-mediated response, Antibody-mediated response)

What is the definition of Ecology?

The scientific study of interactions between different organisms and between organisms and their environment or surroundings.

Identify what makes an organism an invasive species.

An organism that causes ecological or economic harm in a new environment where it is not native… Invasive species are capable of causing extinctions of native plants and animals, reducing biodiversity, competing with native organisms for limited resources, and altering habitats.

What is Mutualism?

Both species benefit (WIN-WIN); example is Insects and flowers

What is Commensalism?

One member of the association benefits and the other is neither benefited or harmed (WIN-0); barnacles on a whale

What are the parts of the brain?

Cerebrum (lobes), cerebellum, brainstem, hypothalamus

What is the path a stimulus takes from the initial impulse to the effectors?

Stimulus → Sensory Receptor → Sensory Neuron → Interneuron (brain or spinal cord) → Motor Neuron → Effector (muscle or gland)

What consist of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

Brain and spinal cord (interneurons)

What consist of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

Nerves that branch out from the spinal cord to all parts of the body (sensory and motor neurons)

What does Somatic Nervous System control?

Controls voluntary actions within the body (skeletal muscle movements)

What does Autonomic Nervous System Control?

Controls involuntary actions within the body

What does Sympathetic Nervous System do?

Speeds up bodily functions that we can not control (fight or flight response)

What does Parasympathetic Nervous System do?

Slows down bodily functions that we cannot control (rest and digest)

What is the function of a neurotransmitter?

A chemical that transmits an impulse from the axon terminal of one neuron to the dendrites of the next neuron or to the target cell.

How the Endocrine system maintains homeostasis?

Glands must be stimulated to release hormones, hormones travel through the bloodstream to get to their target cells, slower response time but a longer lasting response.

How hormones travel throughout the body?

Bloodstream to get to target cells

Why is it that hormones do not a ect cells other than their specific target cells?

Lock and Key: only a certain hormone will work on certain cells due to the lock and key system; example: ADH (vasopressin) only acts on cells in the kidney.

Give a negative feedback example.

Insulin or glucagon being released to restore glucose levels to homeostasis

Give a positive feedback example.

Childbirth because the initial stimulus (uterine contractions) leads to increased contractions, which in turn further stimulate the body to release more of the hormone oxytocin, amplifying the contractions until the baby is born.

Explain the process of sperm production from the origin of the cell to the point of ejaculation.

Sperm produced in the testes (seminiferous tubules) → mature in the epididymis → vas deferens brings it up to the urethra. Seminal vesicle, prostate, and cowper’s gland (aid in semen production) - semen leaves by way of the urethra in the penis → ejaculation.

Explain the process of ova production from the origin of the cell to the point of ovulation.

Ovary → fallopian tube (oviduct) → uterus → cervix → vagina (birth canal)

What does LH do during the ovarian cycle?

Triggers ovulation around day 14 in the ovarian cycle

What does FSH do during the ovarian cycle?

Stimulates the development of the follicle

What does Estrogen do during the ovarian cycle?

Secreted by the ovary; stimulates the development of uterine lining.

What does Progesterone do during the ovarian cycle?

Secreted by the corpus luteum; stimulates the development of the uterine lining

What does Oxytocin do during the ovarian cycle?

Produced by the pituitary - stimulates contractions of the uterus

What is the Flow Phase of the Menstrual Cycle?

Begins on day 1, menstrual ow

What is the Follicular Phase of the Menstrual Cycle?

FSH released from the pituitary and targets the ovary to develop an immature egg. A follicle forms around a developing ova for maturation until ovulation.

What is the Ovulation Phase of the Menstrual Cycle?

LH, released by the pituitary targets the ovary and the mature ovum is released from the ovary into the oviduct. The egg lives for 24 hours. If fertilization doesn’t occur, the egg will disintegrate.

What is the Luteal Phase of the Menstrual Cycle?

After day 14, once ovulation has occurred and the ruptured follicle will form into the corpus luteum and secrete hormones until it is unnecessary and then the CL will disintegrate and the level of hormones will decrease.

Describe the structure and functions of the parts of a sperm cell.

Head: contains the genetic information/DNA - the nucleus, Midpiece: mitochondria; provides energy for the sperm, Tail: agellum for movement

What is the role of the Liver in Digestion?

Produces bile, lters the blood of toxins and waste

What is the role of the Pancreas in Digestion?

Produces pancreatic enzymes and insulin

What is the role of the Gallbladder in Digestion?

Collects and secretes bile

What is the role of Proteins in the Digestive system?

Function: enzymes production, structures; Break down into amino acids

What is the role of Carbohydrates in the Digestive system?

Function: break down into simple sugars for ATP; Break down into monosaccharides/simple sugars (glucose)

What is the role of Lipids/Fats in the Digestive system?

Function: phospholipid bilayer, insulation, hormone production; Break down into 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol

What is Mechanical Digestion?

Changes the shape by chewing or churning (ex.: bolus formation or peristalsis)

What is Chemical Digestion?

Uses enzymes to break down and change the original components

What does Salivary Amylase digest?

Chemically breaks down carbohydrates into glucose in the mouth

What does HCL digest?

Breaks down proteins into amino acids in your stomach to prepare them for digestion and reduces the pH of the stomach to a very acidic 2.5

What does Pepsin digest?

In the stomach, pepsin neutralizes stomach acid and aids in breaking down proteins into amino acids.

What does Bile digest?

Aids in breakdown of lipids into glycerol and fatty acids.

What does Pancreatic Protease digest?

In the small intestine - breaks proteins down into amino acids.

What does Pancreatic Lipase digest?

In the small intestine - breaks lipids down into one glycerol and 3 fatty acids

What does Pancreatic Amylase digest?

In the small intestine - breaks lipids carbs into glucose.

Where is urea formed?

Liver

What are the wastes that the Skin eliminates?

Salts, urea, some water

What are the wastes that the Lungs eliminates?

Carbon dioxide and some water (water vapor)

What are the wastes that the Liver eliminates?

Toxins, drugs, and alcohol

What are the wastes that the Urinary system eliminates?

Metabolic wastes and excess water

What are the functions of the nephron?

Filtration, reabsorption, and secretion

How does blood enters and exits the kidneys?

Enters through the renal artery and exits through the renal vein.

What is Filtration of urine?

Filters the waste from the blood in the 1st capillary bed

What is Reabsorption of urine?

components of the ltrate (water, salts, electrolytes, etc.) are reintroduced back into the bloodstream

What is Secretion of Urine?

the ltrate collects to form urine and is excreted out of the body as waste.

What are the normal components of urine?

Urea, water, salts

Explain how the kidneys play a role in maintaining homeostasis in the body.

Excretes wastes from the body, ADH (vasopressin) controls the amount of water that is reabsorbed back into the bloodstream due to signals detected by the hypothalamus indicating dehydration, in the event of overhydration, ADH (vasopressin) production would decrease and excess water would be eliminated with wastes from the body.

What is fitness?

Describes how well an organism can survive and reproduce in its environment

What is artificial selection?

Intentional reproduction of individuals in a population that have desirable traits.