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Any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results in energy expenditure. This includes everyday activities like walking, cleaning, or carrying groceries. It is not necessarily planned or structured.
Physical activity
Planned, structured, and repetitive, performed with the goal of improving or maintaining physical fitness (e.g., running, weightlifting, or yoga sessions).
Exercise
Study of how cells transform energy
Bioenergetics
Total of all energy transformations that occur in the body
Metabolism
Energy-requiring reaction
Anabolic
Energy-yielding (releasing) reaction
Catabolic
Energy-yielding or energy-requiring reaction?
ATP + H2O --> ADP + Pi + energy
Energy-yielding
Energy-yielding or energy-requiring reaction?
ADP + Pi + energy --> ATP
Energy-requiring
Chemical process where a change in one substance is accompanied by a change in another
Coupled reaction
Require or release energy?
Glucose + Pi --> Glucose-6-phosphate
Require
Require or release energy?
ATP + H2O --> ADP + Pi
Release
Name the 3 systems to resynthesize ATP from ADP
- ATP-PC System
- Anaerobic Respiration
- Aerobic Respiration
Immediate Energy System, within first 10-15 seconds of exercise
ATP-PC System
ATP-PC System:
1. PCr --> Pi + Cr
(Release/Require energy)
2. ADP + Pi --> ATP
(Release/Require energy)
Releases
Requires
ATP-PC System:
- ADP + PCr --> Cr + ATP
What kind of reaction is this?
Coupled reaction
ATP-PC System:
What is the enzyme that catalyzes the coupled reaction:
ADP + PCr --> Cr + ATP
Creatine kinase
An increase in _________ changes the system from aerobic to anaerobic to ATP-PC
Intensity
An increase in _________ changes the system from ATP-PC to anaerobic to aerobic
Duration
ATP-PC Use/Regeneration:
During heavy exercise, ATP is __________ for muscle contraction
Hydrolyzed
ATP-PC Use/Regeneration:
ADP is __________ by the breakdown of PC
rephosphorylated
ATP-PC Use/Regeneration:
During recovery, ________ _________ can be resphosphorylated from ATP breakdown
free creatine
ATP-PC Use/Regeneration:
The remnant ADP is free to be phosphorylated by ______ __________ using energy substrates
oxidative phosphorylation
Loss of ________ can be offset by consuming 1 g from meat, poultry, fish, and liver synthesis from amino acids (AA) arginine, glycine, and methionine
creatine
Ingesting 5g of creatine monohydrate four times daily for 5-7 days
Loading phase
Ingesting 3-5g of creatine monohydrate per day
Maintenance phase
Increase in ADP concentration causes ___________ in creatine kinase activity
increase
Increase in ATP concentration causes _______ in creatine kinase activity
decrease
The process by which cells transfer energy from food to ATP in a stepwise series of reactions; relies heavily upon the use of _________
oxygen
The process of breaking down glucose or glycogen into pyruvate in the absence of oxygen, primarily for quick ATP production during high-intensity exercise
Anaerobic glycolysis
Both ______ and _______ can serve as substrates for anaerobic glycolysis, but they enter the pathway differently
glucose, glycogen
__________ metabolism is more efficient because it avoids the ATP investment required for glucose phosphorylation.
Glycogen
Source of glucose metabolism
Blood glucose (from diet or liver)
Source of glycogen metabolism
Stored muscle glycogen
Glucose metabolism requires ___________ to phosphorylate glucose into glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) (uses ___ ATP)
hexokinase, 1
Glycogen is broken down by ______ _______ into glucose-1-phosphate (G1P), which is converted to G6P
glycogen phosphorylase
Net ATP yield for glucose metabolism
2 ATP per glucose
Net ATP yield for glycogen metabolism
3 ATP per glycogen unit (skips ATP-consuming step)
Anaerobic glycolysis:
This rate-limiting enzyme converts fructose-6-phosphate → fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (uses 1 ATP).
Phosphofructokinase-1
Converts phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) → pyruvate, generating 2 ATP.
Pyruvate kinase
Converts pyruvate → lactate, regenerating NAD⁺ to keep glycolysis running under anaerobic conditions.
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
Since anaerobic glycolysis does not involve _______ _________, the ATP yield is much lower than aerobic metabolism:
oxidative phosphorylation
While anaerobic glycolysis provides rapid ATP, it also leads to ____ _____ accumulation, contributing to muscle fatigue.
lactic acid
The central converting substance for cellular respiration
Acetyl coenzyme A
4 stages of carbohydrate cellular respiration
1. Glycolysis
2. Formation of Acetyl CoA
3. Krebs cycle
4. Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
Carbohydrate Cellular Respiration:
Occurs in the _________ of the cell
cytoplasm
Carbohydrate Cellular Respiration:
Responsible for the initial ________ of glucose in a 10 or 11-step process
catabolism
Carbohydrate Cellular Respiration:
Begins with ________ or __________
glucose or glycogen
Carbohydrate Cellular Respiration:
Ends with the production of ______ (aerobic glycolysis) or ______ (anaerobic glycolysis)
Pyruvate, lactate
Stage 1a: Aerobic Glycolysis
Breakdown of ______ or ______
glucose glycogen
Stage 1a: Aerobic Glycolysis:
Energy Investment Phase
◦Glucose --> __ ATP
◦Glycogen --> __ ATP
2 ATP
1 ATP
Stage 1a: Aerobic Glycolysis
Energy Generation Phase
__ ATP
__ NADH + H+
__ Pyruvate (oxygen present)
4 ATP
2 NADH + H+
2 Pyruvate
Stage 1a: Aerobic Glycolysis
Net ATP Gain
Glucose --> __ ATP
Glycogen --> __ ATP
2 ATP
3 ATP
Stage 1b: Anaerobic Glycolysis:
Breakdown of ____ or ______
glucose, glycogen
Stage 1b: Anaerobic Glycolysis
1.Energy Investment Phase
◦Glucose --> __ ATP
◦Glycogen --> __ ATP
2
1
Stage 1b: Anaerobic Glycolysis
1.Energy Generation Phase
___ ATP
___ NADH + H+
___ Pyruvate --> ___ Lactate (Oxygen Absent)
4 ATP
2 NADH + H+
2 pyruvate --> 2 lactate (oxygen absent)
Stage 1b: Anaerobic Glycolysis
Net ATP Gain
◦Glucose --> __ ATP
◦Glycogen --> __ ATP
2
3
Glucose / Glycogen (Step 1)
Enzyme designed to use ATP as the phosphate donor
Hexokinase
Glucose / Glycogen (Step 1)
Enzyme adapted to use Pi, which is abundant in the cell
Phosphorylase
Rate-limiting enzyme, affected by the energy levels of the cell
Phosphofructokinase (step 3)
Hydrogen carrier (2 electrons & 2 protons) with limited supply in the cytoplasm of the cell
NAD+
Stage II: Formation of Acetyl CoA:
Occurs in the ______ ______
mitochondrial matrix
Stage II: Formation of Acetyl CoA:
After glycolysis, pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA in the mitochondrial matrix through _____ ______
pyruvate oxidation
Stage II: Formation of Acetyl CoA:
___ ATP produced
___ NADH + H+
___ CO2
___ Acetyl CoA
No ATP produced
2 NADH + H+
2 CO2
2 Acetyl CoA
CCR Stage III: Krebs Cycle
Occurs in the ______ _____
mitochondrial matrix
CCR Stage III: Krebs Cycle
___ ATP
___ NADH + H+
___ FADH2
___ CO2
2
6
2
4
CCR Stage III: Krebs Cycle
The rate limiting enzyme?
Isocitrate dehydrogenase
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
A. Electron Donation:
◦NADH + H+ at Complex ___
◦FADH2 at Complex ___
I
II
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
B. Electron Transfer & Proton Pump:
◦Electrons move through Complexes ___ ___ and ___
1, 3, 4
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
B. Electron Transfer & Proton Pump:
◦Energy released pumps ____ from mitochondrial matrix to intermembrane space
H+
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
B. Electron Transfer & Proton Pump:
◦Creating an ____ _____
electrochemical gradient
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
Gradient drives protons from intermembrane space back to the matrix through ______ _______
ATP Synthase
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
◦Powers the synthesis of ______ from ADP and Pi
ATP
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
D. Oxygen Reduction
◦At the end of the chain, e- are transferred to ____, which combines with protons to form ___
O2, H2O
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
It takes ___ H+ moving through each ATP synthase to yield 1 ATP
3
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
Technically involves ____ H+ to compensate for the 1 H+ that enters with ___
4, Pi
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
Hydrogen Count
◦___ H+ enter at Complex I & III
◦___ H+ enter at Complex IV
4
2
CCR Stage IV: Elec. Tp. and Ox. Phor
ATP Yield
◦___ ATP produced for each NADH + H+
◦___ ATP produced for each FADH2
2.5
1.5
ATP Production from Carbohydrate
2.5 ATP for each NADH & H+
1.5 ATP for each FADH2
2 steps of fat metabolism:
1. Lipolysis
2. Beta Oxidation
Fat Metabolism
Glycerol can enter glycolysis in liver or fat cells but not in _____ cells.
muscle
Fat Metabolism
Step B: Beta Oxidation
The breakdown of ____ ______, specifically, pairs of carbon atoms
fatty acids
Fat Metabolism
Step B: Beta Oxidation
Occurs in the _____ _____
mitochondrial matrix
Fat Metabolism
Step B: Beta Oxidation
Energy Investment Phase
◦___ ATP (*2 ATP)
1
Fat Metabolism
Step B: Beta Oxidation
Energy Generation
1 FADH2 ( ___ ATP)
1 NADH + H+ ( ___ ATP)
1 Acetyl CoA ( ___ ATP)
-yields __ ATP*
-yields __ FADH2 + __ NADH + H+
1.5
2.5
10
- 1
- 1 , 3
Protein Metabolism
What are the building blocks of protein
Amino acids
Protein Metabolism
AAs can be used as a fuel source, but first, NH2 is _______ via _______ or oxidative deamination
removed, transamination
Protein Metabolism
The transfer of NH2 from AA to keto acid (e.g., α-ketoglutarate)
Transamination
Protein Metabolism
Keto acid becomes ________ (AA), which is transaminated to ________ (AA) by giving its amino group to _______
glutamate ---> alanine
pyruvate
Protein Metabolism
Alanine can then be converted to glucose via ___________
gluconeogenesis
Creates new glucose from non-carbohydrate sources
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis typically occurs when you're not consuming enough _________ or when your body needs extra glucose for energy
carbohydrates
Location of gluconeogenesis
Liver (primarily) and kidneys
Helps maintain your blood sugar levels, ensuring your body has the energy it needs even when you're not eating carbs
Gluconeogenesis
