AP psych review- using notes

What is psychology?

The study of behavior and mental processes

What’s a theory?

Explanation of why and how a behavior occurs. Not applicable to everyone.

What are the requirements of a good theory?

• Testable

• Applicable

• Supported

• Predictable

What is anecdotal data?

Evidence collected in a casual or informal manner, relying heavily or entirely on personal experience.

What is empirical data?

Evidence collected through the scientific method; based on observation and/or experimentation

What do clinical psychologists do?

Assess/treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders

What are psychiatrists?

MDs who treat disorders and prescribe medication

What does counseling do?

Helps people utilize strengths to cope with adversity.

What do positive psychologists do?

Focus on well-being and conditions that foster thriving.

What does a community psychologist do?

Strengthens systems/organizations to meet group needs

What do educational psychologists do?

Study effective teaching and learning processes

What is experimental research?

Using empirical methods to advance scientific knowledge

What do industrial-organizational psychologists do?

Apply research to improve workplace productivity and quality of life.

What is psychometric/measurement?

Designing experiments and analyzing psychological data

What do sports psychologists do?

Help athletes maintain motivation and manage competition challenges.

What is the focus of the psychodynamic perspective?

Behavior is the result of the unconscious mind.

Childhood plays a major role

What are some key terms of the psychodynamic perspective?

• Id

• ego

• superego

• defense mechanisms

• unconscious

• childhood trauma

What is the biological perspective?

Behavior is the result of physical structures in brain and body

What are some key terms of the biological perspective?

• nervous system

• hormones

• parts of brain

• drug therapy

What is the focus of the cognitive perspective?

Behavior is the result of mental processes

• How we remember and make decisions, and how we explain errors in memory and thinking

What are the key words of the cognitive perspective?

• schema

• memory

• thinking

• language

• framing

• cognitive biases

What is the focus of the socio-cultural perspective?

Behavior is the result of situational and cultural contexts.

• Must examine the situation and social factors to know the actions of the individual

What are the keywords for the social-cultural perspective?

• attribution

• conformity

• society

• obedience

• attitude

• environment

What is the focus of the evolutionary perspective?

behavior is the result of our motivation to survive and reproduce.

• Mental processes have a purpose

What are the keywords for the evolutionary perspective?

• evolution

• adaptation

• natural selection

• genetics

• reproduction

What is the focus of the behavioral perspective?

Behavior is the result of learning from experience.

• born a blank slate

What are the keywords of the behavioral perspective?

• classical conditioning

• operant conditioning

• reward

• punishment

• reinforcement

What is the focus of the humanistic perspective?

Behavior is motivated by potential for growth.

• It influenced psychology

• Free will and meeting our own needs

What are some keywords for humanistic perspective?

• self-actualization

• self-transcendence

• free will

• hierarchy of needs

• self-concept

• self-esteem

What is the biopsychosocial approach?

Combines biological, cognitive, and social lenses to understand behavior, particularly health concerns.

What is the descriptive research method?

It describes characteristics or behaviors witnessed using surveys, case studies, or observations (nothing is controlled)

What is the correlational research method?

It draws a relationship between two variables using data

What two research methods are included in non-experimental?

Descriptive and correlational

What is the experimental research method?

Manipulates variables to determine a causal relationship between variables

What is longitudinal research?

Data is gathered for same subjects repeatedly, over time, observational study

What is cross-sectional research?

Data is collected from a population/representative subset at a certain time, observational study

What is qualitative data?

Relies on in-depth narrative data (i.e. descriptions)

What is quantitative data?

Relies on quantifiable numeric data

What are surveys?

A technique to ascertain self-reported attributes/behaviors of a group by questioning a representative, random sample. A tool used in descriptive, correlational, and experimental research methods.

What are the strengths of surveys?

efficient and affordable

What are the weaknesses of surveys?

May not have representative sample

• Wording can impact participant responses- self-reported answers may not be accurate (report themselves highly)- underreport embarrassing behaviors.

What is an experiment?

Manipulates one or more variables in a controlled environment to observe the effect.

What’s the purpose of random assignment to participants in an experiment?

Researchers can attempt to control other variables

What’s a strength of experiments?

It’s the only method that can prove causation

What are some weaknesses of experiments?

• Because of controlled settings, results may interfere with other settings

• Expensive and difficult

• Limited due to ethics-do no harm

What is naturalistic observation?

Observing and recording behavior in a naturally occurring setting without trying to control and manipulate the situation.

What are some strengths of a naturalistic observation?

• Shows real-world behavior (ecological validity)

• Researchers may see unexpected patterns of behavior

What are some weaknesses of naturalistic observation?

• Researcher has no control over variables

• Observer can inaccurately report observations

• Must notify participants

• Hawthorne effect: people react differently when they know they’re being watched

What’s a case study?

A descriptive technique where an individual/group is studied in depth to reveal universal principles.

What are the strengths of a case study?

• Collects in-depth, detailed data (multiple types of data)

• Used to study rare/unique situations

What are some weaknesses of a case study?

• Not generalizable to the broader population

• Potential for researcher bias in observation

What is correlation?

A measure of extent to which two variables change together and thus how well either variable predicts the other.

What are some strengths of correlation?

• Shows real-world behavior (ecological validity)

• May see unexpected patterns of behavior

What are some weaknesses of correlation?

• Correlation does NOT prove causation

  • third variables

  • perception of a relationship without existence of one

What is a meta-analysis?

Procedure to statistically combine results of various studies

What are the strengths of a meta-analysis?

• More statistical power

• Confirmatory data analysis

• Ability to apply to the population

• Evidence-based

What are the weaknesses of a meta-analysis?

• Difficult and time-consuming

• Research bias

• Not all studies give similar data

• Need advanced statistical techniques

What’s a Quasi-experiment?

Research that manipulates factors (variables) to test an idea (hypothesis) in a controlled setting, but no random assignment to control groups.

What are some strengths for a Quasi-experiment?

• Can provide useful information about people who have and have not been exposed to different conditions

• Allow research to be conducted on topics and in settings that would otherwise be impossible

What are some weaknesses of a Quasi-experiment?

Conclusions are not as firm as those that are true from experiments because they do not rule out third variables.

What’s a correlation?

The measure of the relationship between two variables—how much they change together.

What’s a positive correlation?

Both variables move in the same direction

What’s a negative correlation?

Variables move in different directions.

What’s a correlation coefficient?

A statistical representation of the relationship between two variables?

What two numbers is the correlation coefficient in between?

-1.0 and +1.0

What’s a strong correlation?

Two variables are closely related; changes in one variable are associated with changes in another.

What’s a weak correlation?

Two variables have small, inconsistent relationship; one variable doesn’t predict the other

Why does correlation not prove causation?

• Other variables may explain the relationship between two correlated variables

• Third variables- outside variables may be responsible for the relationship between two correlated variables.

What’s an illusory correlation?

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

What’s a hypothesis?

An empirically testable proposition about some fact, behavior, relationship, or the like, usually based on theory, that states an expected outcome.

Why is a hypothesis important?

It gives researchers a clear prediction to scientifically test

What’s a representative sample?

It ensures results can be generalized to the wider population.

What’s a random sample?

Everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study.

Why is a random sample important?

It ensure results of the study can be applied to the population.

What is a convenience sample?

A process for selecting a sample that is neither random nor systematic but rather is governed by chance or ready availability.

Why is convenience sample important?

Quick and easy to collect, but may not represent the whole population.

What is a stratified sample?

The population is divided into relevant subcategories and a random sample is taken from each subcategory.

Why is a stratified sample important?

It ensures important subgroups are fairly represented.

What is random assignment?

Researcher randomly assigns participants to the experimental or control group.

Why is random assignment important?

It reduces bias and helps make groups equal at the start.

What is an experimental group?

A group that receives special treatment

Why is an experimental group important?

It lets researchers test the actual effect of an independent variable

What is a control group?

A group (without special treatment or with placebo) to compare to experimental group(s)

Why is a control group important?

It provides a baseline for comparison.

What is an independent variable?

A factor manipulated by the experiementer

Why is an independent variable important?

It allows researchers to see what factor may cause changes.

What is a dependent variable?

A factor that may change in response to the independent variable and is being measured

Why is the dependent variable important?

It shows the outcome of the study, what’s affected by the independent variable.

What’s a placebo?

A pseudo-treatment (fake treatment) given to the…

Why is a placebo important?

It helps show expectations

What is single blind procedure?

Participants do not know what group they are in (experimental or control group)

Why is a single blind procedure important?

Prevents the expectations from affecting the results.

What is a double blind procedure?

Participants nor the person gathering the data know which group is experimental or control

Why is a double-blind procedure important?

It prevents participant and researcher bias, increasing validity

What is empiricism?

Gaining knowledge based on observation and experience

What is intuition?

Knowing or believing something based on gut feeling rather than evidence.

What is hindsight bias?

The I knew it all along phenomenon.

• We tend to believe that after learning about an outcome that we already knew it.

What is overconfidence?

We tend to think we know more than we actually do.

What is social desirability bias?

People answer a survey or question in a way that will be viewed as favorably by other to avoid looking negatively or lie.

What is self-report bias?

People answer a survey or question and report behavior inaccurately, often on purpose or on accident.