AP Psych

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes

John Watson

Dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior

Behavioralism

Psychology should be an objective science studying behavior without reference to mental processes

Sigmund Freud

Emphasized the unconscious mind and childhood experiences in behavior

Behavioral Approach

Study of observable behavior and its explanation by learning principles

Psychoanalytic Approach

Focuses on how the unconscious mind affects behavior

Clinical Psychology

Studies and treats psychological disorders

School Psychology

Diagnoses and treats problems affecting children's learning

Social Psychology

Studies how we think, influence, and relate to others

Developmental Psychology

Studies changes throughout the lifespan

Experiment

Manipulates factors to observe effects on behavior or mental processes

Theory

Explanation using principles to predict behaviors or events

Population

All in a group being studied

Dependent Variable

Measured outcome in an experiment

Experimental Group

Group exposed to treatment in an experiment

Randomization

Assigning participants by chance to control preexisting differences

Survey Method

Obtains attitudes or behaviors from a group

Correlation Study

Measures how two factors vary together

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data describing group characteristics

Central Tendency Measures

Mean, median, mode

Wilhelm Wundt

Established the first psychological laboratory

Empiricism

Knowledge from experience and experimentation

Psychoanalysis

Therapy investigating conscious and unconscious elements

Biological Approach

Links biological and psychological processes

Cognitive Approach

Studies mental processes like perception and problem-solving

Experimental Psychology

Investigates basic psychological processes

Counseling Psychology

Assists people with living problems

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Optimizes human behavior in the workplace

Psychometric Psychology

Studies human abilities, attitudes, and traits measurement

Hypothesis

Testable prediction implied by a theory

Sample

Participants selected for a study

Independent Variable

Factor manipulated in an experiment

Operational Definition

Statement of procedures in a research study

Control Group

Group not exposed to treatment in an experiment

Double-Blind Study

Participants and staff unaware of treatment

Case Study Method

In-depth study of an individual or group

Naturalistic Observation Method

Observes behavior in natural settings

Ex post facto method

Studies how existing qualities affect variables

Inferential Statistics

Data inferring from sample to population

Mode

Most frequent score in a distribution

Median

Middle score in a distribution

Variability

Subject to change or variation in behavior

Range

Difference between highest and lowest scores

Normal Distribution

Symmetrical curve describing data distribution

Statistical Significance

Likelihood of a result occurring by chance

Mean

Arithmetic average of a distribution

Standard Deviation

Measure of score variation around the mean

Frequency Distribution

Tabulation of individuals in each category

Skewed Distribution

Scores lacking symmetry around the average

Brain

Nerve tissue in an organism's anterior end

Neuron

Basic nerve cell of the nervous system

Resting Potential

Electrical potential difference in a non-excited neuron state

Threshold

Minimum stimulus detectable

Myelin Sheath

Fatty tissue around axons for faster action potential

All-or-none Response

Either enough stimulus for a response or none

Terminal Buttons

End of axon responsible for signal transmission

Synapse

Contact points between neurons for information transfer

Peripheral Nervous System

Outside brain and spinal cord nervous system part

Parasympathetic System

Regulates involuntary physiological processes

Somatic Nervous System

Peripheral system throughout the body

Cerebrum

Coordinates movement and regulates temperature

Parietal Lobes

Sensory processing hub on top of the brain

Temporal Lobes

Process emotions, memories, and language

Sensory Cortex

Processes gathered information

Broca’s Area

Brain region for language articulation

Spinal Cord

Connects brain to the outside world and has reflexes

Dendrite

Receives input from other neurons

Action Potential

Rapid voltage changes across a neuron's membrane

Depolarization

Sodium ion channels opening for neural impulse

Refractory Period

Delay in response due to previous action completion

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals enabling neuron communication

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters relieving pain and

Sensory Adaptation

Process where brain cells become less sensitive to constant stimuli perceived by the senses

Cornea

Transparent part of the eye's outer covering, allowing light to enter the eye

Lens

Adjusts focal distance of the eye for focusing on objects at different distances

Rods and cones

Responsible for color (cones) and movement (rods) interpretation

Optic nerve

Carries messages from the retina to the brain

Blind Spot

Area in the visual field where no perception occurs due to optic disk

Convergence

Eyes turning inward to focus on an object for depth perception

Summation

Process determining action potential generation from combined signals

Trichromatic Color Theory

Human perception of light with red, blue, and green colors

Hue

Color dimension based on light wavelength

Saturation

Purity of color and deviation from white

Dark adaptation

Eye's adjustment to low light conditions

Monocular cues

Depth perception cues using one eye

Binocular cues

Depth perception cues using both eyes

Interposition

Object partially covering another appears further away

Aerial perspective

Distant objects depicted paler, less detailed, and bluer

Motion parallax

Close objects appear to move faster than distant ones

Audition (hearing)

Ability to sense and interpret sound

Ossicles

Small bones transmitting sound vibrations in the middle ear

Basilar Membrane

Vibrating membrane in the cochlea stimulating hair cells

Auditory Nerve

Connects inner ear to the brain for hearing and balance

Place theory of hearing

Perception of pitch based on cochlear regions detecting sound frequencies

Bekesy’s hearing theory

Sound wave transmission triggering basilar membrane wave

Olfactory Receptors

Responsible for the sense of smell

Pain receptors

Detect signals from damaged tissue or threat of damage

Kinesthesis

Perception of body movements and changes in position

Perceptual constancy

Tendency to see familiar objects with standard attributes

Closure

Perception of incomplete forms as complete