AP Psych

  Introduction, History, Research Methods, and Statistics

1. Psychology - the science of behavior and mental processes

2. John Watson - dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as “the scientific study of observable behavior”

3. Behavioralism- the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

4. Sigmund Freud- Psychoanalytic Psychology; emphasized the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior

5. Behavioral Approach- the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning

6. Psychoanalytic approach-  focuses on deciphering how the unconscious mind governs conscious processes in ways that interfere with healthy psychological functioning

7. Clinical psychology- a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders 

8. School psychology- diagnoses and treats cognitive, social, and emotional problems that may negatively influence Children's Learning or overall functioning in school, collaborates with teachers, parents, and administrators, making recommendations to improve student learning 

9. Social Psychology - the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

10. Developmental Psychology- a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan 

11. Experiment- a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

12. Theory- an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

13. Population- all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

14. Dependent Variable- in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

15. Experimental Group- in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

16. Randomization- assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

17. Survey Method- a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

18. Correlation Study - a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

19. Descriptive Statistics- numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation

20. Central Tendency Measures- mean: arithmetic average, median: middle score in the distribution, mode: more frequently occurring score

21. Wilhelm Wundt- was seeking to measure “atoms of the mind,” staffed the first psychological laboratory, and created a machine that measured how long it took for people to press a telegraph key after hearing a ball hit a platform

22. Empiricism- the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge

23. Psychoanalysis - a system of psychological theory and therapy that aims to treat mental conditions by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind through techniques such as dream interpretation and free association

24. Biological Approach-  the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes

25. Cognitive Approach- the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems

26. Cognitive Psychology- the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems

27. Experimental Psychology- the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific investigation of basic psychological processes such as learning, memory, and cognition in humans and animals

28. Counseling psychology- a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

29. Industrial/organizational psychology- the application of psychological Concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in the workplace

30. Psychometric psychology- the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

31. Hypothesis- a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

32. Sample- the method by which participants are selected to be included in a study

33. Independent Variable- in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied 

34. Operational Definition- a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

35. Control Group- in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

36. Double-Blind-Study - an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

37. Case Study Method- a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

38. Naturalistic Observation Method- a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

39. Ex post facto method- a research method that looks into how an independent variable (groups with certain qualities that already exist prior to a study) affects a dependent variable

40. Inferential statistics- numerical data that allow one to generalize - to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of the population

41. Mode- the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

42. Median- the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

43. Variability- the quality of being subject to change or variation in behavior or emotion

44. Range- the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

45. Normal distribution- a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

46. Statistical significance- a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

47. Mean- the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

48. Standard Deviation- a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

49. Frequency distribution- an organized tabulation/graphical representation of the number of individuals in each category on the scale of measurement

50. Skewed Distribution- a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Biological Basis of Behavior 

51. Brain- the mass of nerve tissue in the anterior end of an organism

52. Neuron - a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

53. Resting potential- Electrical potential difference across the membrane in a non-excited state, non-polarized state of a neuron

54. Threshold- The minimum amount of stimuli that can be detected

55. Myelin Sheath- fatty tissue surrounding the axon allowing for a faster action potential 

56. All-or-none response- either there is enough stimulus to set off a response or the is no action potential at all 

57. Terminal Buttons- found at the end of the axon, below the myelin sheath, and are responsible for sending the signal on to other neurons

58. Synapse- the points of contact between neurons where information is passed from one neuron to the next with neurotransmitters 

59. Peripheral nervous system-  part of your nervous system that lies outside your brain and your spinal cord 

60. Parasympathetic System -

61. Somatic Nervous System-  a subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that stretches throughout nearly every part of the body 

62. Cerebrum - initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature, also known as a mini-brain located in the back of the brain 

63. Parietal Lobes- the major sensory processing hub for your brain located on the top of the brain next to the motor cortex

64. Temporal Lobes- a pair of areas on the brain's left and right side close to your ear and temples, playing a role in your emotions processing information from your senses, storing and retrieving memories, and understanding language 

65. Sensory Cortex- includes portions of the cerebral cortex that process all the information gathered 

66. Broca’s Area- the area of our brain for articulating language and speaking

67. Spinal Cord- connects the brain to the outside world is the main relay station and has its own reflexes 

68. Dendrite- where a neuron receives input from other neurons (look like tree branches 

69. Action Potential- a rapid sequence of changes in voltage across a membrane that travels the length of an axon and causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse 

70. Depolarization-  an all-or-nothing event, where it is initiated by the opening of sodium ion channels within the plasma membrane causing the neural impulse. Following would come resting potential, and repolarization by opening the potassium channels. 

71. Refractory Period- a delay in responding that is assumed to be caused by a bottleneck that prevents preparation of a second action until preparation of the previous action has been completed

72. Neurotransmitters-  endogenous chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other throughout the bod

73. Endorphins- are a neurotransmitter that helps relieve pain, reduce stress, and improve your sense of well-being, are excreted by and created in the pituitary gland and hypothalamus 

74. Inhibition/Excitation- the process by which neurons membrane potential decreases, whereas excitation is increasing

75. Central nervous system (CNS) - the entire complex of neurons, axons, and supporting tissue that constitute the brain and spinal cord 

76. Autonomic Nervous System-a component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiological processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration digestion, and sexual arousal 

77. Sympathetic System- a network of nerves that helps your body activate flight or fight response, this system increases with stress, danger, or physical activity 

78. Brainstem- the structure that connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum containing midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

79. Frontal Lobes- the front-most part of your brain, control the way we think how we move, and how we remember things, They play a key part in social skills and understanding how you talk behave, and interact with others 

80. Occipital Lobes- at the far back part of the brain, responsible for visual perception, including color, form, and motion

81. Motor Cortex- generates signals to direct the movement of the body, located in the frontal lobe 

82. Association Cortex- includes most of the cerebral surface of the brain and is largely responsible for the complex processing that goes on between the arrival of input in the primary sensory cortices and the generation of behavior 

83. Wernicke’s Area- a region of the brain that contains motor neurons involved in the comprehension of speech 

84. Cerebellum- the portion of the brain in the back of the head between the cerebrum and the brain stem, controls balance for walking and standing and other complex motor function 

85. Limbic System- the part of the brain involved in our behavioral and emotional responses 

86. Hypothalamus - an area of the brain that produces hormones that control body temp, heart rate, and hunger

87. Amygdala- a region of the brain primarily associated with emotional responses, especially fear

88. Split Brain- when the corpus callosum is cut or lesioned to stop epilepsy in some patients 

89. Hormones- chemical substances that act like messenger molecules in the body that travel to other body parts through the bloodstream

90. Hippocampus- a region of the brain that is associated primarily with memory 

91. Reticular System- a network of neurons located in the brain stem that project anteriorly to the hypothalamus to mediate behavior, 

92. Thalamus - an egg-shaped structure in the middle of your brain that is the main relay station of incoming motor and sensory information, besides smell

93. Corpus Callosum- a bunch of nerve fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain 

94. Endocrine System- a series of glands that produce hormones and functions in regulating all activities in the body 

95. Pituitary Gland- peas-sized endocrine gland located below the hypothalamus that releases several hormones 

Sensation & Perception 

96. Senses- the process of sensory organs transforming physical energy into neurological impulses the brain interprets as the five senses 

97. Absolute Threshold- smallest level of stimulus that can be detected, usually at least half the time

98. Weber’s Law- law quantifying the perception of change in a given stimulus. 

99. Receptor- the cell in a sensory system that is responsible for stimulus transduction 

100. Vision - information processing in order to understand images and objects that surround us as a stimulus 

101. Pupil- the aperture through which light passes on entering the eye 

102. Retina- the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye 

103. Fovea- a small depression in the central portion of the retina in which retinal cone cells are most concentrated and an image is focused most clearly 

104. Accommodation- what occurs when new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas 

105. Acuity- sharpness of perception 

106. Color- light rays from the sun that enter the retina and are perceived by the different wavelengths of light to make sense of the world 

107. Opponent process color theory- proposed by Herald Hering this pairs colors together in how we perceive them, red-green, blue-yellow, white-black

108. Brightness- how much light enters the eye the more light the brighter less light the darker

109. Color blindness- the inability to discriminate between colors and to perceive color hues 

110. Depth perception- your ability to see objects in three dimensions including their size and how far away they are from you 

111.  Perception- the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the information or environment

112. Difference threshold- the minimum required difference between two stimuli for a person to notice change (50%)

113. Signal-detection theory- the detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical/psychological state of the individual

114. Sensory Adaptation- the process by which our brain cells become less sensitive to constant stimuli that are packed up by our senses 

115. Cornea- the transparent part of the outer covering of the eye, through which light first passes through 

116. Lens- changes the focal distance of the eye to allow focus on objects at various distances 

117. Rods and cones- responsible for the interpretation of color (cones) and movement (rods)

118. Optic nerve- the nerve that carries messages from the retina to the brain 

119. Blind Spot- the area of the monocular visual field in which stimulation can not be perceived because the image falls on the site of the optic disk in the eye 

120. Convergence- a binocular cue for perceiving depth, the extent to which the eyes coverage inward when looking at an object

121. Summation- the process that determines whether or not an action potential will be generated by combined effects of excitatory and inhibitory signals

122. Trichromatic Color Theory- human eyes only perceive three colors of light: red, blue, and green with all other colors being a combination of those three

123. Hue- the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of the light 

124. Saturation- the purity of color and the degree to which it departs from white 

125. Dark adaptation- the ability of the eye to adjust to conditions of low illumination by means of increased sensitivity to light 

126. Monocular cues- cues that require only one eye, ie; interposition, motion parallax, relative size and clarity, texture gradient, linear perspective, and light and shadow

127. Binocular cues- cues that require two eyes that enable us a sense of depth perception. 

128. Interposition- a type of monocular cue in which one object partially obscures or covers another object, giving the perception the object is partially covered is further away

129. Aerial perspective - the technique of creating an illusion of depth by depicting distant objects as paler, less detailed, and usually bluer than near objects

130. Motion parallax- which objects that are close, appear to move faster than objects that are far away

131. Audition (hearing)- the ability of an organism to sense sound and to process and interpret the sensations to gain information about the source and nature of the sound

132. Ossicles- any small bones, but particularly the auditory ossicles, are a chain of three tiny bones in the middle ear that transmit sound vibration from the eardrum to the oval window of the inner ear

133. Basilar Membrane- a fibrous membrane within the cochlea that supports the organ of Corti, this membrane vibrates which leads to stimulation of the hair cells 

134. Auditory Nerve- a nerve connecting the inner ear with the brain and carrying nerve impulses concerned with hearing and balance

135. Place theory of hearing-  proposes an explanation of how human beings perceive pitch, the hair cells and nerve fibers of the cochlea are divided into different regions that detect specific sound frequencies

136. Bekesy’s hearing theory- sound vibrations transmitted to the cochlear fluid by the round window triggered a traveling wave along the length of the basilar membrane

137. Olfactory Receptors- AKA odorant receptors are responsible for giving the sensation of smell 

138. Pain receptors- sensory receptors that detect signals from damaged tissue or the treat of damage and indirectly also respond to chemicals released from the damaged tissue 

139. Kinesthesis- the perception of body movements and detecting changes in body position and movements

140. Perceptual constancy- the tendency of animals and humans to see familiar objects as having standard shape, size color, or location

141. Closure- people tend to perceive incomplete forms(images, sounds, etc) as complete

142. Selective Attention- the processes that allow an individual to select and focus on particular input for further processing while simultaneously suppressing irrelevant or distracting information

143. Perceptual set (mental set)- a predisposition to perceive or notice some aspects of the available sensory data and ignore others

144. Retinal disparity- the fact that the left and right fields of vision provide slightly different visual images focusing on a single point 

145. Linear Perspective- A monocular cue is a depth prompt that the human eye perceives when viewing two parallel lines that appear to meet at a distance 

146. Texture Gradient- the progressively finer appearance of textures and surface grains of objects as the viewer moves away from them 

147. Visual Cortex- the primary cortical region of the brain that receives, integrates, and processes visual information relayed from the retinas 

148. Tympanic Membrane- a conically shaped membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear and serves to transform the pressure waves of sound into mechanical vibration of the ossicles 

149. Cochlea- used to sense pressure from sound vibrations so human brains can interpret what is heard 

150. Hair cells- the sensory receptors of both the auditory system and the vestibular system in the ears of all vertebrates.

151. Auditory Cortex- the part of the temporal lobe that processes auditory information in humans and many other vertebrates

152. Frequency hearing theory- a sound heard is replicated and matched by the same amount of nerve impulses that are then transmitted to the brain 

153. Taste receptors- a type of cellular receptor that facilitates the sensation of taste 

154. Touch receptors- a subtype of sensory neuron that is located in the skin and possesses specialized endings that respond to mechanical stimulation

155. Gate-control Theory- suggests that the spinal cord contains a neurological nage that either blocks pain signals or allows them to continue on to the brain 

156. Vestibular sense- allowing us to move smoothly by, allowing us to sense movement, gravity, and balance while engaged in activities 

157. Perceptual organization- is the process of grouping visual elements together so that one can more readily determine the meaning of the visual while 

158. Stroboscopic movement- the apparent motion of a series of separate stimuli occurring in close consecutive order, as in motion pictures 

Altered States of Consciousness 

159. Divided Attention- the ability to pay attention to two tasks at once

160. Circadian Rhythm- the physical, mental, and behavioral changes organisms experience over a 24-hour cycle

161. REM Sleep- rapid eye movement, one of the main stages of sleep, in this stage you dream, brain activity breathing heart rate, and blood pressure increase, and memory is encoded into long-term 

162. Paradoxical Sleep- a phase of sleep characterized by brain activity similar to wakefulness, irregular and rapid breathing, rapid heart rate, and muscular atonia

163. Sleep deprivation- a condition characterized by inadequate or insufficient sleep sustained over a period of time 

164. Narcolepsy- a chronic neurological disorder that affects the brain's ability to control sleep-wake cycles

165. NREM Sleep- there are 3 different types of NREM (one, two, three) where there is no rapid eye movement dreams are relatively uncommon, and don’t remember anything from these ages

166. Slow Wave Sleep (delta sleep)- a period of deep sleep where any environmental noises or activity may fail to wake the person sleeping

167. Jet lag- a temporary sleep problem that can affect anyone who quickly travels across several time zones

168. Sleep Apnea- breathing interruptions during sleep causing lack of REM

169. Insomnia- a sleep disorder in which you have trouble falling and or staying asleep 

170. Somnambulism (sleepwalking)- a behavior disorder that originates during deep sleep and results in walking or performing other complex behaviors while still mostly asleep

171. Nightmare- a frightening or otherwise disturbing dream in which fear, sadness, despair, disgust, or some combination thereof forms the emotional content

172. Latent dream content- the hidden psychological meaning of the dream 

173. Manifest dream content- the actual events and imagery within a dream that, according to Freud, serves to mask the unconscious thoughts and desires of the dreamer

174. Lucid Dreaming- a dream in which the sleeper is aware that they are daydreaming and may be able to influence the progress of the dream narrative

175. Dream- a way of processing issues in our lives 

Learning 

176. Learning- the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

177. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

178. Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian)- a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavolov’s classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus

179. Unconditioned Stimulus (US or UCS)- in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response

180. Conditioned Response (CR)- in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

181. Unconditioned Response (UR or UCR)- in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus

182. Delayed Conditioning- a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is presented, and remains present, for a fixed period before the unconditioned stimulus is introduced

183. Trace conditioning- a form of associative learning that can be induced by presenting a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus following each other, but separated by a temporal gap

184. Temporal Conditioning- a procedure in classical conditioning in which the unconditioned stimulus is presented at regular intervals but in the absence of an accompanying conditioned stimulus

185. Simultaneous conditioning- the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented at the same time. In this case, the conditioned stimulus of the bell is presented at the same time as the food

186. Extinction- the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

187. Spontaneous Recovery-  the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

188. Generalization- the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations)

189. Discrimination- in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced)

190. Blocking effect- an outcome of other models that also based learning on the difference between what is predicted and what actually happens.

191. Continuity vs contingency- the idea that development is gradual and continuous with changes occurring gradually over time, vs, the idea that development is dependent on specific events or conditions where certain outcomes are contingent upon particular circumstances or experiences

192. High-order conditioning (also called second-order conditioning) - A form of classical conditioning where a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with a neutral stimulus (NS), resulting in the NS becoming a conditioned stimulus and eliciting a conditioned response.

193. Operant conditioning- A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by the consequences that follow it. Behaviors that are reinforced tend to be repeated, while behaviors that are punished tend to decrease in frequency.

194. Shaping (successive approximations)-The process of gradually guiding behavior toward a desired goal or outcome by reinforcing successive approximations of the target behavior.

195. Reinforcement event or stimulus that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a desired behavior occurring again in the future.

196. Punishment- Any event or stimulus that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future.

197. Primary reinforcer stimulus that is inherently reinforcing, such as food, water, or shelter, and does not require learning to be reinforcing.

198. Secondary Reinforcer stimulus that gains its reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers or through learned associations.

199. Positive reinforcement- The presentation of a pleasant or desirable stimulus following a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future.

200. Negative reinforcement- The removal or avoidance of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus following a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future.

201. Continuous reinforcement- Reinforcing a desired behavior every time it occurs, resulting in rapid learning but also rapid extinction when reinforcement stops.

202. Partial Reinforcement- Reinforcing a desired behavior only some of the time, resulting in slower acquisition of the behavior but greater resistance to extinction.

203. Partial Reinforcement The phenomenon where behaviors reinforced on a partial reinforcement schedule are more resistant to extinction than behaviors reinforced on a continuous reinforcement schedule.

204. Ration Schedules- Reinforcement schedules based on the number of responses emitted by the individual, such as fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules.

205. Interval Schedules- Reinforcement schedules based on the passage of time, such as fixed-interval and variable-interval schedules.

206. Latent learning- Learning that occurs but is not immediately expressed in behavior, often becoming apparent only when there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

207. Cognitive maps-Mental representations of spatial layouts or environments, allowing individuals to navigate and plan routes through familiar spaces.

208. Observational learning (modeling, imitation)- Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others (models) and the consequences of that behavior, and then imitating or modeling the behavior.

Memory 

209. Memory- the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

210. Storage- The retention of encoded information over time.

211. Encoding- The processing of information into the memory system (e.g., by extracting meaning).

212. Retrieval- The process of getting information out of memory storage.

213. Sensory memory (sensory register)- The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

214. Short-term memory-Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, before the information is stored or forgotten.

215. Long-term memory-The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

216. Chunking- Organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often automatically.

217. Serial position effect- Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

218. Primacy effect- The tendency to remember information at the beginning of a list due to its longer exposure time and rehearsal.

219. Recency effect- The tendency to remember information at the end of a list due to its presence in short-term memory.

220. Episodic memory- The collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place.

221. Semantic memory-A general knowledge store that encompasses concepts and meanings, rather than specific instances.

222. Procedural memory- The memory of how to perform particular actions, procedures, or skills.

223. Explicit memory- Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."

224. Implicit memory- Retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called procedural memory.)

225. Flashbulb memory - A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

226. Anterograde amnesia- The inability to form new memories following damage to the brain.

227. Retrograde amnesia-The inability to retrieve information from one's past, particularly episodic memories, prior to a specific event.

228. Recall- Retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but was learned at an earlier time.

229. Recognition-Identifying items previously learned.

230. Retroactive interference- The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

231. Proactive interference- The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

232. Repression- The basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

233. Levels of processing- The concept that the amount of information remembered depends on the depth of mental processing.

234. Mnemonic methods- Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

235. Tip of the Tongue phenomenon- The temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach.

236. State-dependent memory- The phenomenon that recall information is better when the person is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding.

237. Context-dependent memory- The improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.

238. Eidetic imagery- the ability to remember visual stimuli over long periods of time after only a few instances of exposure, with high precision.

239. Working memory-  A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Development

240. Development- The development of cognitive, social, intellectual, and emotional abilities as one grows

241. Longitudinal Study- Repeated studies of the same individuals over long periods of time, often years.

242. Nature-Nurture- The debate over whether how an individual develops is more influenced by biological factors like genetics, or influenced more by their environment.

243. Embryo- An unborn child that is still developing

244. Dizygotic Twins- Two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm

245. Maturation- The biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

246. Cross-Sectional Study-A research method that compares individuals of different ages at the same point in time to determine age-related differences.

247. Cohort Differences between age groups due to the fact that they grew up in different historical contexts.

248. Fetus-The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.

249. Monozygotic Twins-Twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two, resulting in two genetically identical organisms.

250. Teratogens-Substances, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

251. Cognitive Development-Changes in thinking, memory, problem-solving, and other intellectual skills across the lifespan.

252. Sensorimotor Stage-Piaget's first stage of cognitive development (birth to 2 years), during which infants experience the world through senses and actions.

253. Concrete-Operational Thinking-Piaget's stage (7 to 11 years) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

254. Assimilation-Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures without changing them.

255. Object Permanence-The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not perceptually present.

256. Reversibility of Operations-The understanding that operations can be reversed, restoring the original state of objects or situations.

257. Attachment-The strong emotional bond that develops between infants and their caregivers, influencing emotional and social development.

258. Avoidant Attachment-An insecure attachment style characterized by avoidance of caregiver and indifference to their departure or return.

259. Stranger Anxiety-The fear and distress shown by infants when approached by or in the presence of unfamiliar people.

260. Temperament-A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity, which influences their social interactions and behavior.

261. Lawrence Kohlberg’s three levels (3 stages) of Moral Development-Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, including conventional (self-interest), conventional (social rules), and post-conventional (ethical principles) levels, each with two stages.

262. Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Social Development-Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, posits that individuals pass through eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved.

263. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome - A set of physical and cognitive abnormalities that result from prenatal exposure to alcohol.

264. Jean Piaget-A Swiss psychologist known for his pioneering work in child development and the theory of cognitive development.

265. Preoperational Thinking-Piaget's stage (2 to 7 years) is characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and inability to perform mental operations.

266. Formal-operational thinking-Piaget's stage (from age 11 onward) is characterized by the ability to think abstractly and logically.

267. Accommodation-Adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information or experiences.

268. Egocentrism-The inability to perceive a situation or object from another person's point of view.

269. Conservation Problems-Piagetian tasks that require understanding that certain properties of objects remain the same despite changes in appearance.

270. Secure Attachment A healthy attachment style is characterized by trust, comfort, and a sense of security in the presence of the caregiver.

271. Resistant Attachment-An insecure attachment style characterized by ambivalence and anxiety toward the caregiver, often resulting from inconsistent caregiving.

272. Life-Span Development-The study of growth, change, and stability throughout the entire lifespan, from conception to death.

Motivation 

273. Motivation- The willingness to work towards a goal

274. Drive- An urgent basic desire caused by a physiological need or deficiency (E.g. thirst, hunger)

275. Homeostasis- The regulation of one’s internal environment (E.g. body temperature, blood sugar, salt/water balance)

276. Instinct-  A species-specic biological force that motivates one to act in particular in regard to certain stimuli.

277. Drive-reduction-  The drive to reduce a psychological or physiological need like hunger or thirst

278. Intrinsic motivation- comes from within, doing something for the pleasure of it, rather than an external motive

279. Extrinsic motivation- External factors, doing something because of an external reward

280. Biological motives- Biological causes of motivation (hormones, neurotransmitters, brain structures)

281. Learned motives- Motives acquired in more complex ways, typically from societal or cultural influences (desire for money, fame, etc.)

282. Arousal and performance- Too much or too little arousal causes worse performance (Yerkes-Dodson Law)

283. Hunger- The desire to eat, can be caused by physical feelings (physical hunger, hormones like leptin and ghrelin) or psychological, where it is more a desire to eat, without any physical causes.

284. Hyperphagia--  Extreme hunger that is difficult to satisfy

285. Anorexia Nervosa- An eating disorder associated with an extreme fear of weight gain

286. Bulimia Nervosa- An eating disorder associated with intense overeating followed by ‘purging’ or vomiting

287. Set-point hypothesis- The belief that the body has a set weight range, and will attempt to stay within that through various physiological processes.

288. Achievement motivation- The desire to be successful

289. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a pyramid shape, lower levels need to be satisfied first to achieve higher levels, (From bottom to top: physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, self-actualization).

Personality 

290. Personality- The set of characteristics that form an individual

291. “Big Five” Personality Traits- Model that describes five broad traits - OCEAN - Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

292. Psychoanalytic theory- Splits the unconscious into three components, the Id, Ego, and Superego - Focuses on unconscious or subconscious repressed feelings

293. Sigmund Freud- Created the Psychoanalytic Theory, and pioneered therapy as dialogue between psychologist and patient - Psychosexual theory

294. Unconscious-  The level of consciousness that is not accessible by the conscious mind, but that does have an effect on behavior and emotions.

295. ID- “The Devil on the Shoulder” - Part of the subconscious that focuses on basic needs, not necessarily what is morally ‘right’

296. Ego-  Conscious part of the mind, what the person is aware of, mediator between Id and Superego

297. Superego- “The Angel on the Shoulder” - Part of the subconscious responsible for moral standards, ethics, and idealized self-image

298. Defense mechanisms- Unconscious processes used by the mind to alleviate stress

299. Projective testing- Testing that involves ambiguous stimuli to provoke responses that might reveal something about a patient’s personality (E.g. The Rorschach Test/Inkblots)

300. External locus of control- The belief that outside influences control your actions and behavior

301. Internal locus of control- The belief that you yourself control how you behave, a sense of agency

302. Self concept- The beliefs you hold about yourself 

303. Self- esteem- How you value yourself, personal evaluation of self-worth

304. MMPI- Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - A very common test used to assess personality and potential disorders

305. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - “Picture Interpretation Technique” Projective test that involves the patient describing ambiguous scenes which may reveal personality traits and emotions

306. Personality testing approaches- Ways of assessing personality, can include interviewing, quantitative tests, inventories, projective testing, observation, etc.

Stress

307. Health Psychology- A subfield of psychology that focuses on how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health

308. Stress- Natural human response to difficult situations, described as a state of mental tension

309. Behavioral Medicine- Field of medicine focusing on behavioral, psychosocial, and medical knowledge to prevent, diagnose, and treat conditions

310. Burnout- State of exhaustion caused by overwhelming emotional, physical, and mental fatigue for extended periods of time

311. Type A personality- “High Achieving Workaholic” - Ambitious, outgoing, organized, impatient, anxious, proactive.

312. Type B personality- More easygoing, flexible, carefree, better work-life balance, typically less prone to stress

313. General Adaptation Syndrome-  Physiological changes in response to stress

314. Life Stress Events-  Events in one's life that are sources of stress (E.g. divorce, loss of loved one, fired from job, diagnosed with serious illness, etc.)

315. Stress inoculation- a form of therapy, “Talk Therapy”, a form of cognitive behavioral therapy that teaches patients to manage their stress more effectively, commonly used with people affected by PTSD

316. Coping strategies-  Conscious strategies used to reduce stress

317. Biofeedback- Mind-body technique to control certain bodily functions (heart rate, muscle contraction, breathing patterns)

Abnormal Behavior and Treatment 

318. Abnormal behavior- Any behavior that deviates from what is considered ‘normal’

319. Biomedical Model- Medical model that sees mental disorders as diseases in the brain, focusing more on pharmacological treatment

320. Cognitive Model- Model that believes cognitive processes affect behavior among individuals

321. Behavioral Model- The belief that behavior is motivated by rewards and punishments for our actions

322. Psychoanalytic model- Divides the psyche into three components, id, ego, superego

323. Etiology- The causes of an illness

324. Symptom- Something that a person feels or experiences in response to an illness

325. Syndrome- A group of symptoms that commonly occur together

326. Treatment- A way of caring for a patient with an illness or condition

327. DSM-IV- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Editon: widely used system for classifying psychological disorders

328. Hallucination- Involves distorted senses (seeing/hearing something that isn’t really there)

329. Delusion- A belief in something that is not true

330. Anxiety Disorders- Mental health disorder involving feelings of worry/fear that affect daily life

331. Phobias- Debiliting irrational fear of something

332. Somatoform disorder- Physical symptoms with no physical causes,

333. Post-traumatic stress disorder/PTSD- Condition caused by traumatic event, can involve flashbacks, anxiety, uncontrollable thoughts

334. Conversion disorder- a disorder in which a person experiences a very specific physical symptom that is not compatible with recognized medical or neurological conditions

335. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)- Chronic disorder involving recurring thoughts and repetitive behavior

336. Dissociative Disorder- Disorder that involves feeling a loss of connection between thoughts, feelings, behavior, surroundings, and memories

337. Dissociative identity disorder- Disorder involving the presence of multiple personalities

338. Major depression- Consistently poor mood, lack of interest, feelings of worthlessness, lack of energy, changes in appetite, agitation

339. Bipolar disorder- A disorder that causes drastic shifts in a person’s mood, energy, and focus

340. Mood disorders- Group of disorders characterized by persistent disruption of mood

341. Schizophrenias- Disorders affecting a person’s ability to think, behave, and feel clearly.

342. Personality disorder- Disorders that involve seeing yourself in certain ways and reacting to others in ways that could be considered problematic or abnormal.

343. Antisocial personality disorder- Disorder characterized by a disregard for other people

344. Paraphilia- Persistent sexual interests and urges involving things that are abnormal.

345. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)- A form of depression involved in seasonal changes, usually occurring in colder months with less sunlight.

346. Psychotherapy- The therapist may explore a client’s early relationships, encourage the client to adopt new ways of thinking, or coach the client in replacing old behaviors with new ones

347. Psychoanalysis- The therapist’s interpretation of their released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight

348. Behavioral Therapy- Form of therapy involved in teaching patients how to strengthen positive behavior and eliminate negative behavior

349. Psychodynamic psychotherapies- Therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition; views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight

350. Cognitive therapy- This type of therapy focuses on changing the way you think

351. Drug Therapy- The administration of drugs to treat conditions

352. Psychosurgery- Brain surgery used to treat mental conditions 

353. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)- Treatment involving sending an electric current through the brain, typically 30-60 seconds, to cause a brief seizure with the aim of relieving some symptoms of mental conditions

354. Aversive Conditioning- This type of conditioning involves a negative stimulus being paired with a negative behavior

355. Systematic desensitization- Slowly exposing someone with a phobia to their source of fear to gradually desensitize them to it.

356. Client-centered therapy- This form of therapy is based on the idea that people are inherently motivated to achieve progress

357. Family therapy-Form of talk therapy that involves improving relationships among family members

358. Flooding- A form of exposure therapy where you experience the fear at a high level for a longer time with the aim of desensitization

359. Implosive therapy- A form of exposure therapy that involves repeated exposure to negative stimuli

360. Antipsychotic drugs- Drugs used to treat hallucinations, delusions, and other psychotic symptoms

361. Antidepressant drugs-  Increase neurotransmitter activity in the brain

362. Antianxiety drugs-Drugs used to help reduce panic attacks, extreme fear, etc.

363. Lithium carbonate- Medication used to treat bipolar disorder

Social Psychology 

364. Social psychology- The field of psychology that deals with social interactions, including their origins and their effects on the individual

365. Attitude- feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events

366. Attribution theory- the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

367. Fundamental attribution error- the tendency for observers, when analyzing others; behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

368. Person attribution- The process of explaining someone's behavior by attributing it to their internal characteristics, such as personality traits, abilities, or attitudes.

369. Situational Attribution- The process of explaining someone's behavior by attributing it to external factors, such as the influence of the situation or environment.

370. Self-Serving Bias- The tendency to attribute one's successes to internal factors (e.g., ability, effort) while attributing failures to external factors (e.g., bad luck, situational factors), thus preserving one's self-esteem.

371. Self-fulfilling prophecy-belief or expectation that leads to its own fulfillment. People may unknowingly act in ways that make their expectations come true, thereby confirming their beliefs.

372. Social Cognition- The study of how people perceive, interpret, and remember information about themselves and others in social contexts, including how they form impressions, make judgments, and interact with others.

373. Cognitive Dissonance Theory- the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent.

374. Social facilitation- the theory that people perform better when in the presence of others, like a coworker or an audience

375. Deindividuation- the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

376. Stereotype- A generalized belief about a group of people, often based on oversimplified or exaggerated assumptions about their characteristics.

377. Prejudice- A negative attitude or feeling toward an individual or group based solely on their membership in a certain group, often without justification or rational consideration.

378. Discrimination- Unfair treatment or actions directed toward individuals or groups based on their membership in a particular social category, such as race, gender, or religion.

379. Mere exposure effect- The phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things they are exposed to repeatedly, even if they were initially neutral or unfamiliar, simply due to increased familiarity.

380. Impression formation- The process of forming opinions or judgments about others based on available information, including physical appearance, behavior, and social cues. This process can involve stereotyping but also incorporates individual characteristics and situational factors.

381. Group polarization- the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

382. Groupthink- the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

383. Group- A collection of two or more individuals who interact with and influence one another, share common goals, and have a sense of belonging.

384. Norms-Established rules or expectations within a group that guide and regulate the behavior of its members, often influencing what is considered acceptable or appropriate.

385. Roles- The expected behaviors, obligations, and responsibilities associated with a particular position or status within a group, influencing the behavior of individuals who occupy those positions.

386. Prosocial behavior - Actions that are intended to benefit others, often involving acts of kindness, generosity, or altruism.

387. Altruism- The unselfish concern for the welfare of others, often involving acts of self-sacrifice or helping behavior without expecting anything in return.

388. Bystander intervention- The act of helping or providing assistance to someone in need in the presence of others, where the decision to intervene is influenced by social factors such as the number of bystanders and perceived responsibility.

389. Pluralistic ignorance-A phenomenon where individuals in a group privately reject a norm or belief but publicly conform to it because they incorrectly perceive that others accept it, leading to a false consensus.

390. Diffusion of Responsibility- The tendency for individuals to feel less personal responsibility for taking action or helping others in a group setting, assuming that others will take responsibility instead.

391. Conformity- adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

392. Obedience- a form of social influence that involves acting on the orders of an authority figure

393. Stanley Milgram- social psychologist best known for controversial experiments on obedience 

394. Individualism- giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications