EBP combined

Population

The aggregate of cases in which a researcher is interested.

Accessible population

The aggregate of cases that conform to designated criteria and that are accessible for a study.

Target population

The aggregate of cases about which the researcher would like to generalize.

Eligibility/inclusive criteria

Criteria that specify population characteristics: cost, practical constraints, people’s ability to participate, design considerations.

Element

Basic population unit about which information is collected.

Sample

A subset of population elements used to represent the entire population.

Strata

Subpopulations; mutually exclusive segment of a population.

Staged sample

Samples that are selected in multiple phases.

Sampling bias

The systematic over- or underrepresentation of segments of the population on key variables.

Snowball sampling aka

Also known as network sampling or chain sampling.

Power analysis

A method used in quantitative research to estimate sample size.

Is the following statement true or false? Researchers usually sample from the target population.

False- Researchers usually sample from the accessible population but should identify the target population to which they want to generalize their results.

Convenience sampling

A non-probability sampling technique where participants are selected based on their easy availability and proximity to the researcher.

Factors affecting sample size/requirements in quantitative research

Effect size, Homogeneity of the population, Cooperation and attrition, Subgroup analyses

What are the steps in sampling?

1. Identify the population

2. Specify the eligibility criteria

3. Specify the sampling plan

4. Recruit the sample

Is the following statement true or false? Replicating a study with another sample of participates will help confirm the results of the previous study.

True - If the sampling plan is flawed of an initial study, it may be risky to generalize the findings without replicating the study with another sample. The additional study will help provide more evidence backing the findings.

Validity

The approximate truth of inference.

Threats to validity

Reasons that an inference could be wrong.

Statistical conclusion validity

A type of validity concerned with the ability to detect true relationships statistically, affected by factors like low statistical power and restriction of range.

Internal validity

The extent to which it can be inferred that the independent variable is truly responsible for the outcome, rather than confounding factors.

Construct validity

Concerns inferences from the particular exemplars of a study to the higher order constructs that they are intended to represent.

External validity

Concerns the extent to which it can be inferred that relationships observed in a study hold true over variations in people, conditions, and settings.

Randomization

A control method that controls all preintervention confounding variables without requiring advance knowledge of which variables to control, though it faces ethical and practical constraints.

Crossover

A control method that is considered one of the strongest approaches when conducted with randomization, allowing for a comparison where participants receive multiple interventions in a sequential manner.

Homogeneity

A control method that is easy to achieve and enhances interpretability by restricting the sample to certain characteristics, but limits generalizability.

Stratification/blocking

A control method that enhances the ability to detect relationships and offers the opportunity to examine the blocking variable as an independent variable.

Matching

Also known as pair matching; a control method that enhances interpretability but is usually restricted to a few variables and requires a large pool of potential controls.

Statistical control

A relatively economical means of controlling several confounding variables, such as through Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), requiring statistical sophistication.

Intervention fidelity

Also referred to as treatment fidelity; the reliable implementation of a treatment as planned.

Temporal ambiguity

A threat to internal validity where there is uncertainty about whether the cause preceded the effect.

Selection

A threat to internal validity involving biases resulting from preexisting differences between groups.

History

A threat to internal validity where external factors occurring at the same time as the study change over time and affect the results.

Maturation

A threat to internal validity referring to processes occurring within participants as a result of the passage of time.

Mortality/attrition

A threat to internal validity involving the loss of participants over the course of a study.

Per-protocol analysis

An internal validity data analysis approach that includes only those participants who completed the treatment as specified.

Intention-to-treat analysis

An internal validity data analysis approach that analyzes participants according to the group to which they were originally assigned.

Reactivity to the study situations

A threat to construct validity where participants behave differently because they are aware they are in a study.

Novelty effects

A threat to construct validity where the results are influenced by the newness of the intervention rather than the intervention itself.

Treatment diffusion/contamination

A threat to construct validity occurring when members of the control group receive the intervention intended for the experimental group.

Efficacy studies

Studies designed to evaluate if an intervention works under ideal, highly controlled conditions.

Effectiveness studies

Studies designed to evaluate if an intervention works in real-world clinical settings.

True or False: Once researchers identify all relevant confounding variables, they will be able to control all of them while conducting the research.

False. Although researchers must know in advance the relevant confounding variables, they are rarely able to control all of them and must plan accordingly.

True or False: An important step in critically appraising a research report is to evaluate if the threats to validity were maximized during the process.

False. Critical appraisal involves assessing whether threats to validity were minimized rather than maximized, which is essential for evaluating the report's contribution to nursing practice.

Inferential Statistics

A means of drawing conclusions about a population based on data from a sample using the laws of probability to make objective judgments about the reliability of estimates.

Sampling Error

The tendency for sample characteristics to be seldom identical to population characteristics even when random sampling is assumed.

Standard Error of the Mean (SEM)

The standard deviation of a sampling distribution, which allows researchers to interpret the accuracy of the sample mean as an estimate of the population mean.

Point Estimation

A form of parameter estimation where a single statistic is calculated to estimate the population parameter.

Interval Estimation

A method of parameter estimation that indicates a range of values within which a parameter has a specified probability of lying.

Confidence Interval (CI)

A range of values established for the population value that includes the probability of being right.

Confidence Limits

The specific upper and lower limits of a confidence interval.

Hypothesis Testing

Statistical procedures that provide objective criteria for deciding whether hypotheses are supported by data, enabling researchers to make decisions about the validity of their hypotheses.

Null Hypothesis

A statement used in hypothesis testing that assumes there is no relationship between the variables.

Type I Error

The error that occurs when a null hypothesis is incorrectly rejected, representing a false positive.

Type II Error

The error that occurs when a null hypothesis is wrongly accepted, representing a false negative.

Level of Significance

A criterion used to control the risk of Type I error, most frequently set at levels of $.05$ and $.01$.

Critical Regions

Areas indicating whether the null hypothesis is improbable, used to determine probable and improbable values of sample means.

t-test

A parametric test used for comparing differences between two group means.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

A statistical method used for testing mean differences with three or more groups by calculating an F-ratio.

Chi-Square Test

A test used to evaluate hypotheses about group differences in proportions based on observed and expected frequencies.

Power

The probability of a statistical test detecting a true relationship or group difference, represented as $1 - \beta$.

Power Analysis

A method used to reduce the risk of Type II errors and strengthen statistical conclusion validity by estimating the necessary sample size in advance.

Effect Size

A component of power analysis used to estimate the magnitude of the relationship or differences, sometimes calculated after studies are completed based on actual Ns.

Difference between one-way ANOVA and two-way ANOVA tests

The difference lies in the number of independent variables; one-way ANOVA tests one independent variable's effect, while two-way ANOVA tests two independent variables and their interaction on a dependent variable.

Mixed methods (MM) research

Research that combines qualitative and quantitative approaches in a single study to collect, analyze, and integrate findings.

Meta-inference

A conclusion generated by integrating inferences from results of qualitative and quantitative strands of an MM study.

Concurrent designs

MM designs in which both qualitative and quantitative strands occur in one simultaneous phase.

Sequential designs

MM designs in which one strand occurs prior to and informing the second strand.

Convergent design

A core MM design where qualitative and quantitative data are collected concurrently; variants include parallel databases, data transformation, and questionnaire variants.

Explanatory sequential design

A core MM design that involves a quantitative phase followed by a qualitative phase to explain results; variants include follow-up explanations and case selection.

Exploratory sequential design

A core MM design where qualitative data is collected first, followed by quantitative data; variants include new variable development and instrument development.

Intramethod mixing

Pattern of data collection that occurs within the same method in an MM study.

Intermethod mixing

Pattern of data collection that occurs between different methods in an MM study.

Qualitizing

The analytical process of transforming quantitative data into qualitative form.

Quantitizing

The analytical process of transforming qualitative data into quantitative form.

Is the following statement true or false? Data collection in MM research can involve all methods of structured data only.

False. Data collection in MM research can involve all methods of structured and unstructured data.

Lincoln–Guba Framework

A framework concerning the “trustworthiness” of qualitative data and analysis, encompassing five specific criteria.

Credibility

Confidence in the truth of the data and interpretations of them, enhanced by carrying out the study in a way that increases the believability of findings.

Dependability

The stability or reliability of data over time and conditions.

Confirmability

A criterion ensuring that data represents participants rather than researchers.

Transferability

The extent to which findings can be transferred to or have applicability in other settings or groups.

Authenticity

The extent to which researchers fairly and faithfully show a range of realities.

Criticality

The researcher’s critical appraisal of every research decision.

Integrity

Demonstrated by ongoing self-scrutiny to enhance the likelihood that interpretations are valid and grounded in the data.

Data and Method Triangulation

The use of multiple referents (such as data, time, space, person, or method) to draw conclusions about what constitutes truth.

Member Checking

Providing feedback to participants to verify results, which may involve Synthesized member checking (SMC).

Investigator Triangulation

The use of two or more researchers to make coding, analysis, and interpretation decisions.

Theory Triangulation

The use of competing theories or hypotheses in analyzing and interpreting data.

Analysis Triangulation

Using two or more analytic techniques to analyze the same set of data.

Researcher Credibility

The focus on the researcher's qualifications and experience as a tool for establishing the quality of the study.

Is the following statement true or false? There are relatively few controversies that surround the issue of quality in qualitative studies.

False. Several controversies surround the issue of quality in qualitative studies, one of which involves terminology.

Is the following statement true or false? When preparing a qualitative research report, it is important to ensure adequate information concerning the project’s trustworthiness is included.

True. Qualitative researchers must actively ensure project trustworthiness while balancing quality-enhancement strategies with the limitations imposed by journal page constraints and the need for detailed context and verbatim accounts.

Qualitative analysis

A challenging, labor-intensive activity characterized by having few standardized rules.

Qualitative content analysis

An analytic method often used by researchers who are focused on qualitative description, involving the identification of meaning units.

Spradley’s method

A 12-step ethographic analysis method involving four levels: domain analysis, taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, and theme analysis.

Leininger’s method

An ethnography analysis method with four phases ranging from initial data collection and recording to the abstraction of major themes.

Utrecht School of Phenomenology

A phenomenologic approach that uses holistic, selective, and detailed approaches to analyze data.

Theoretical sensitivity

A researcher's ability to identify relevant categories and relationships in data, emphasized in constructivist grounded theory.

Meaning units

Specific segments of text containing a single idea or piece of information, analyzed in qualitative content analysis.

Is the following statement true or false? Researchers whose focus is qualitative description may say that they used qualitative content analysis as their analytic method.

True. Researchers whose focus is qualitative description may indeed say that they used qualitative content analysis as their analytic method.

Is the following statement true or false? Hermeneutic circle signifies a methodologic process in which there is continual movement between the parts and the whole of the text under analysis.

True. The hermeneutic circle signifies a methodologic process where there is continual movement between the parts and the whole of the text being analyzed.