Comprehensive Biology: Cell Types, Microbiology, Respiration, Photosynthesis, Genetics, and Laboratory Techniques

What are the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic cells have both.

What are the main types of bacteria and their unique characteristics?

Bacteria can be classified into groups such as cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), and spirilla (spiral), each with distinct shapes and functions.

How does Gram staining work and what does it indicate about cell wall structure?

Gram staining differentiates bacteria based on cell wall composition; Gram-positive bacteria retain the crystal violet stain, while Gram-negative bacteria do not.

Can you visually identify Gram positive and negative bacteria?

Yes, Gram positive bacteria appear purple, while Gram negative bacteria appear pink under a microscope after Gram staining.

What are the shapes of bacteria that can be identified by sight?

Bacteria can be identified as cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), or spirilla (spiral) based on their morphology.

How do bacteria contribute to ecological processes?

Bacteria play essential roles in nutrient cycling, decomposition, and can have symbiotic relationships with humans and other organisms.

What is the chemical equation for cellular respiration?

The equation is C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (ATP).

What are the basic steps of aerobic respiration?

Aerobic respiration includes glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain, producing ATP and byproducts.

What are the basic steps of anaerobic respiration?

Anaerobic respiration involves glycolysis followed by fermentation processes, producing less ATP than aerobic respiration.

How do aerobic and anaerobic respiration compare?

Both processes start with glycolysis, but aerobic respiration requires oxygen and produces more ATP, while anaerobic does not.

Which organisms perform anaerobic respiration?

Examples include yeast (which performs fermentation) and certain bacteria that thrive in oxygen-poor environments.

What factors can affect respiration activity?

Factors include temperature, pH, substrate availability, and enzyme activity.

What roles do respiration processes play in the environment?

They are crucial for energy transfer in ecosystems and are linked to processes like decomposition and nutrient cycling.

What is the overall reaction for photosynthesis?

The equation is 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2.

What are the main processes of photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis consists of light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions).

How can chromatography be used to determine the presence of pigments?

Chromatography separates pigments based on their solubility and interaction with the stationary phase, allowing identification.

What wavelengths of light support photosynthesis?

Light in the blue (430-450 nm) and red (640-680 nm) wavelengths is most effective for photosynthesis.

How is light absorption related to the color we see in plants?

Plants appear green because chlorophyll absorbs blue and red light but reflects green light.

What happens when light is blocked from reaching a DCPIP-chloroplast solution?

Blocking light prevents the light reactions of photosynthesis, inhibiting electron transport and reducing DCPIP color change.

What causes the color change in DCPIP?

DCPIP changes color when it is reduced during the light reactions of photosynthesis, indicating electron transfer.

Why is Alu a good gene to use in genetic experiments?

Alu is a transposable element that is easily identifiable and provides insights into genetic variation and evolution.

What does dimorphic mean in a biological context?

Dimorphic refers to organisms that have two distinct forms or morphologies, often related to different life stages or sexes.

What structures must be broken to release DNA from a cell?

Cell membranes and nuclear membranes must be disrupted, typically using physical or chemical methods.

What components are necessary for the PCR procedure?

PCR requires DNA template, primers, nucleotides, and DNA polymerase, each playing a crucial role in amplification.

What are the three main steps of PCR amplification?

The steps are denaturation (separating DNA strands), annealing (binding primers), and extension (synthesizing new DNA strands).

What are applications for PCR?

PCR is used in genetic testing, cloning, forensic analysis, and studying genetic diseases.

What are the principles of gel electrophoresis?

Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments based on size and charge, with smaller fragments moving faster through the gel.

What is the process of gel electrophoresis?

DNA samples are loaded into a gel matrix, an electric current is applied, causing DNA to migrate towards the positive electrode.

What are other applications for electrophoresis?

Electrophoresis is used in protein analysis, DNA fingerprinting, and studying genetic variations.

What are the key differences between mitosis and meiosis?

Mitosis produces two identical diploid cells, while meiosis produces four genetically diverse haploid gametes.

What are mono- and dihybrid crosses?

Monohybrid crosses examine one trait, while dihybrid crosses examine two traits, determining genotypic and phenotypic ratios.

How can genotypes and phenotypes be determined from pedigrees?

Pedigrees trace inheritance patterns to infer genotypes and predict phenotypes based on known traits.

What are blood type compatibilities in terms of antigens and antibodies?

Blood type compatibility is determined by the presence of specific antigens on red blood cells and corresponding antibodies in plasma.