Child Development Exam #1

Prenatal Period of Development

conception → birth

Infancy + Toddlerhood Period of Development

Birth → 2 Years

Early Childhood Period of Development

2 years → 6 Years

Middle Childhood Period of Development

6 Years → 11 Years

Adolescence Period of Development

11 Years → 18 Years

Emerging Adulthood Period of Development

18 Years → Mid-Twenties

Theory

An orderly, integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior

• helps us understand development in order to improve the welfare and treatment of children

• depends on scientific verification

Theories in child development take a stand on three basic issues, what are they?

1. Continuous or Discontinuous development?

2. One course of development or many?

3. Roles of genetic and environmental factors?

Continuous Development

A process of gradually adding more of the same types of skills that were there to begin with

Discontinuous Development

A process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times

Stages

Qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development

Domains of Development

1. Physical

2. Cognitive

3. Emotional

4. Social

Physical Development

Changes in:

1. Body size proportions

2. Appearance

3. Functioning of body systems

4. Perceptual and Motor capacities

   1. Eyes, ears, nose, mouth, skin

   2. Gross + fine motor skills

      1. Gross: Large body skills (walking, running, jumping, sitting)

      2. Fine: Smaller muscle movements (writing, pinching, grasping)

5. Physical health

Cognitive Development

Changes in intellectual abilities

• Attention

• Memory

• Academic and everyday knowledge

• Problem solving

• Imagination

• Creativity

• Language

Emotional and Social Development

Changes in:

• Emotional communication

• Self understanding

• Knowledge about other people

• Interpersonal skills

• Friendships

• Intimate relationships

• Moral reasoning

• Behavior

John Locke’s View of Development

Enlightenment Period

Views the child as a tabula rosa (blank slate) and development as continuous

Jean Jacques-Rousseau’s View of Development

Enlightenment Period

Views children as noble savages with built in moral sense and innate plan for growth

Introduced concepts of stages and maturation

Charles Darwin’s View of Development

Theory of evolution emphasized two related principles

1. Natural Selection

2. Survival of the Fittest

G Stanley Hall + Arnold Gesell’s View of Development

Normative Approach: Age related averages of measures of behavior taken on large numbers of individuals are computed to represent typical development

Alfred Binet + Theodore Simon’s View of Development

Mental Testing Movement: developed first successful intelligence test in the early 1900s to identify children with learning problems who needed to be placed in special classes

• First, defined intelligence as good judgment, planning, and critical reflection

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Id, Ego, and Superego become integrated during 5 stages

1. Oral - Birth → 1 Year

2. Anal - 1 Year → 3 Years

3. Phallic - 3 Years → 6 Years

4. Latency - 6 Years → 11 Years

5. Genital - Adolescence

Id, Ego, and Superego

Id: “Spoiled brat” of your mind

Superego: “Angel on your shoulder,” conscience

Ego: “Referee” between Id & Superego— perfect balance

Erikson

Trust vs. Mistrust (babies— learning to trust caregivers)

Autonomy vs. Shame + Doubt (toddlers— teaches life boundaries)

Initiative vs. Guilt (asking lots of questions)

Industry vs. Inferiority (School-age— begins social comparison)

Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence— who am I?)

Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early adulthood— how close you let people get)

Generativity vs. Stagnation (Midlife— deciding how you want to be known)

Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age— did you achieve all of your goals?)

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory

Reinforcements (positive and negative)

• positive reinforcements → rewards

  • increase the likelihood a behavior will happen again

• negative reinforcements → taking away a negative stimulus

  • rewards good behavior by taking away something the child does not like (ex: child cleaned room without being asked, so they don’t have to do the dishes that night)

Bandura”s Social Learning Theory

Theory that there is more to learning than rewarding/punishing behavior

1. Observation

2. Imitation

3. Vicarious Learning (learning through siblings)

4. Prosocial + Antisocial Behavior

Constructed the Bobo Doll Experiment: kids can learn violence by seeing it

Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Believed children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world

• Assimilation (taking in information + putting it into categories)

• Accommodation (taking in information and assigning to new or existing categories)

• Schemas

  • Sensorimotor (Birth → 2 Years, object permanence)

  • Pre-operational (3 Years → 5 Years, symbolic thought: red means stop, green means go, etc)

  • Concrete Operational (6 Years → 10 Years, conservation)

  • Formal Operations (11+ Years, hypothetical deduction + abstract thought)

Information Processing Theory

Compares our brains to computers

• Sensory Input (being aware of all senses)

• Perception

• Attention (cocktail party effect)

• Short-term Memory (very few seconds, unless you encode a memory)

• Long-term Memory (unlimited, as long as memory encoded property)

• Retrieval

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Role of culture in learning

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

• Scaffolding: providing hints, guidance, support, praise

• maximum learning takes place in conjunction with another person

Bowlby

Says that infant crying, smiling, grasping, and babbling are built in social signals that encourage the caregiver to approach, care for, and interact with the baby.

• the signals ensure that the parent will always be near to protect the baby, keep the baby fed, and give the baby the stimulation and attention needed for growth

Brofenbrenner’s Bioecological Model

Views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of surrounding environment

• Microsystem

• Mesosystem

• Exosystem

• Macrosystem

• Chrononsystem

Correlational Research Design

Information on individuals is gathered in natural life circumstances without altering participants’ experiences

• reveals relationships between participants’ characteristics and their behavior/development

• does not permit researcher to infer cause/effect

Correlation Coefficient

Number describing how two variables are associated

• (+) or (-) describes direction of correlation

• bigger number = stronger relationship

Experimental Design

Researchers use an evenhanded procedure to assign people to two or more treatment conditions

• permits inferences about cause/effect

• Independent Variable: the one the investigator manipulates and expects to cause changes in another variable

• Dependent Variable: the one that stays constant between the control and experimental groups

• Confounding Variable: a variable so closely associated with the independent variable that the researcher cannot tell which one is responsible for changes in the dependent variable

• Random Assignment: an unbiased procedure to randomly assign participants to each group

Longitudinal Design

Participants are studied repeatedly, and changes are noted as they get older

(Studied on 3rd Bday, 4th Bday, 5th Bday)

Cross Sectional Design

Groups of people differing in age are studied at the same time

• Does not account for difference in development

(Studies a 4 year old, a 6 year old, and a 10 year old at the same time)

Sequential Design

Researchers conduct several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (sequences)

__ 3 4 5

The next year,

3 4 5 6

Observation Design

Either Structured or Naturalistic

Structured: observation of behavior in a laboratory, where conditions are the same for all participants

Naturalistic: observation of behavior in natural contexts

Nature

Hereditary information we receive from our parents at the time of conception

Nurture

The complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before and after birth

Genotype

An individual’s unique genetic information

(ex: blood type, recessive genes)

Phenotype

An individual’s directly observable characteristics

(ex: eye color, hair color)

Meiosis

Cell division process that halves the number of chromosomes normally in cells

Gametes

Sex cells (sperm and ovum) created by meiosis

Sperm

Male sex cell

Ovum

Female sex cell

Zygote

Cell formed when sperm + ovum unite at conception

Contains 46 chromosomes

Sex Chromosomes

23rd Pair of Chromosomes

Father’s sperm decides sex of baby

XX: Female

XY: Male

XXX: RARE — child has male + female genitalia/characteristics

Dizygotic Twins

Also known as Fraternal Twins

• Result from fertilization of two ova

• Genetically no more alike than ordinary siblings

Monozygotic Twins

Also known as Identical Twins

• Result from separation of a single zygote

• Same exact genetic makeup

Dominant Gene

Dominant allele affects child’s characteristics

Will overpower recessive gene, even if only one dominant allele is present

(ex: brown hair, brown eyes)

Recessive Gene

Type of gene that only shows itself present if the individual inherits two copies of it

(ex: blue eyes, red hair)

Down Syndrome

Most common chromosomal disorder

• In 95% of cases, results from failure of twenty-first pair of chromosomes to separate during meiosis

• Consequences include:

  • Intellectual disability

  • Memory and speech problems

  • Limited vocabulary

    • Slow motor development

Amniocentesis

Most widely used technique

• Hollow needle is inserted through the abdominal wall to obtain a sample of fluid in the uterus, cells are then examined for genetic defects

Chorionic Villus Sampling

A procedure that can be used if results are desired or needed very early in pregnancy. A thin tube is inserted into the uterus through the vagina, or a hollow needle is inserted through the abdominal wall. A small plug of tissue is removed from the end of one or more chorionic villi, the hairlike projections on the membrane surrounding the developing organism. Cells are examined for genetic defects

Ultrasound

High-frequency sound waves are beamed at the uterus; their reflection is translated into a picture on a video screen that reveals the size, shape, and placement of the fetus. By itself, permits assessment of fetal age, detection of multiple pregnancies, and identification of gross physical defects. Also used to guide amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and fetoscopy. When used five or more times, may increase the chances of low birth weight.

Maternal Blood Sampling

By the second month of pregnancy, some of the developing organism’s cells enter the maternal bloodstream. An elevated level of alpha-fetoprotein may indicate kidney disease, abnormal closure of the esophagus, or neural tube defects, such as anencephaly (absence of most of the brain) and spina bifida (bulging of the spinal cord from the spinal column). Isolated cells can be examined for genetic defects.

Adoption

Adoptees tend to have more learning and emotional difficulties than others

• Genetic predispositions

• Prenatal factors:

  • Maternal stress

  • Poor diet

  • Inadequate medical care

• Pre-adoptive history of unsupportive environment (abuse)

• Differences between adoptive parents and children

• However, with sensitive parenting, most adoptees fare well

  • By adolescence, adoptees face identity challenges in integrating aspects of their birth family and their adoptive family

Socioeconomic Status

Combines three related variables

1. Years of Education

2. The prestige of one’s job and the skill it requires

3. Income, which measures economic status

As SES rises and falls, families face changing circumstances that profoundly affect children’s development and well-being.

SES is linked to the timing of parenthood and family size

Family Influences

• Network of interdependent relationships

• Bidirectional Influences between family members

  • Direct Influences: both positive and negative

  • Indirect Influences: effects of third parties

• Coparenting: coordination of parenting roles

• Dynamic, ever-changing interplay of forces within the family

  • Each member adapts to development of other members

  • Historical time period also contributes (ex. economy fluctuates)

Poverty and Homelessness

Today, 15% of the US population live in poverty

Poverty is magnified among:

• Parents under the age of 25 with young children

• Ethnic minorities and women

• Single mothers with preschool children

• Rural communities

US Poverty rate is higher among children (~23%)

US has the highest number of extremely poor children (~12%)

Children of poverty are likely to suffer from:

• lifelong poor physical health

• deficits in cognitive development and academic achievement

• high school dropout

• mental illness

• impulsivity, aggression, and antisocial behavior

Individualistic Culture

Emphasizes independence and personal exploration

Collectivist Culture

Emphasizes group goals and interdependent qualities

Public Policies

Laws and government program designed to improve current conditions

Problems of US Children + Youths:

• Lack of affordable health insurance and health care

• Lack of national standards and funding for childcare

• Weak enforcement of child support payments

• High school dropout

Cultural values of self-reliance and privacy have limited pubic policy solutions in the US

Twin Studies

When many twin studies are examined, correlations between the scores of identical twins are consistently higher than those of fraternal twins.

Genetic-environmental Correlation

Within the cell, environmental factors modify gene expression. Many such effects are unique to humans and influence brain development

• Some experts claim a strong genetic influence (on intelligence), whereas others believe that heredity is barely involved. Currently, most kinship findings support a moderate role for heredity.

Pros and Cons of Family Size

• Smaller family sizes tend to devote more affection, stimulation, and material resources to each child, thus enhancing the intellectual development of all

  • Larger families tend to have lower intelligence test scores of all siblings which can be entirely explained by a strong trend for low-SES mothers to give birth to more children. Most of these families suffer from poverty, which threatens all domains of development

Amniotic Sac

Full of amniotic fluid, which helps keep the temperature of the prenatal world constant and provides a cushion against any jolts caused by the woman’s movement

Placenta

Permits food and oxygen to reach the developing organism and waste products to be carried away

Umbilical Cord

First appears as a primitive body stalk and, during the course of pregnancy, grows to a length of 1 to 3 feet. The ___________ contains one large vein that delivers blood loaded with nutrients and two arteries that remove waste products.

Zygotic Period

Lasts about two weeks, from fertilization and formation of the zygote until the tiny mass of cells drifts down and out of the fallopian tube and attaches itself to the wall of the uterus

Embryonic Period

Lasts from implantation through the eighth week of pregnancy. During these brief six weeks, the most rapid prenatal changes take place as the groundwork is laid for all body structures and internal organs. Because all parts of the body are forming, the embryo is especially vulnerable to interference with healthy development

Fetal Period

Ninth Week - End of Pregnancy

First Trimester:

• Organs, muscles, nervous system become organized and connected

• External genitals are well formed

Second Trimester:

• Mother can feel movements of fetus

• Vernix and lanugo protect skin from chapping

• Neurons form synapses at a rapid pace

• Hearing and sight begin to emerge

Third Trimester:

• Fetus reaches age of viability (22-26 weeks)

• Cerebral cortex enlarges

• Rapid gains in neural organization continue

• Fetus spends more time awake

• Personality begins to take shape

Teratogens

Environmental influence that causes damage during the prenatal period

Harmful effects depend on:

• Dose

• Heredity

• Other negative influences (additional _____, poor nutrition, lack of medical care)

• Age of organism at time of exposure

Can exert long-term effects epigenetically

Teratogens: Drugs

Can be prescription, nonprescription, or illegal

Examples

• Tobacco (linked to causing ADHD, autism, premature babies)

  • low birth weight

  • miscarriage

  • cleft lip + palate

  • infant death

  • asthma + cancer

• Alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome— cognitive delays, facial distortion)

  • Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder

  • physical, mental, behavioral outcomes

  • self-regulation difficulties

Teratogens: Radiation

• can damage DNA of ova and sperm

• risk of childhood cancer

• abnormal brain-wave activity

• lowered intelligence test scores

• language and emotional disorders

Teratogens: Pollution

(air, water, food, lead)

• impairs prenatal development

• higher chances of life threatening diseases

examples: mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins

Teratogens: Infectious Disease

Viral, Bacterial, Parasitic

• HIV/AIDS

  • infant weight loss, delayed cognitive and motor development, if untreated— death by 3 years

• Herpes

  • miscarriage, physical malformations, intellectual disabilities, low birth weight

• Zika

  • microcephaly and eye deformities

• Toxoplasmosis

  • mild → severe damage to eyes and brain

• Chlamydia, Syphilis, Tuberculosis

  • risk of miscarriage and other problems

Maternal nutrition, stress, age

increased risk of infertility, miscarriage, and babies with chromosomal defects

gestational diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance that emerges during pregnancy

Three Stages of Childbirth

1. Dilation and effacement of the cervix (contractions begin) → transition (contractions get quick)

2. Pushing (mom pushes with each contraction) birth of baby (shoulders emerge, followed by rest of body)

3. Delivery of placenta

Crowning occurs between stages 1 + 2, indicating that stage 2 is going to begin

The APGAR Scale

Quickly assesses newborn’s physical condition on five characteristics

1. Color (Appearance)

2. Heart Rate (Pulse)

3. Reflex Irritability (Grimacing, sneezing, coughing)

4. Muscle Tone (Activity)

5. Breathing (Respiratory effort)

Combined score > 7: Indicates good physical condition

Combined score < 3: Infant is in serious danger

0 : none at all

1 : something there, but something is off

2 : all good

Reflexes

Inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation

Grasping

Babies grab hold of anything that is in their hand

Rooting

If a baby feels skin, they will start to look for a nipple

Moro

Startle reflex— babies curl up to cover their heads and stomachs when scared

Babinski

If you stroke the bottom of a baby’s foot, their toes will curl up

States of Arousal

Degrees of sleep and wakefulness

Newborn infants move in and out of 5 States

1. Rapid-eye-movement (REM) Sleep

2. Non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) Sleep

3. Drowsiness

4. Quiet Alertness

5. Waking Activity and Crying

Rapid-eye-movement (REM) Sleep

Brain wave activity is similar to waking state

Non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) Sleep

Body is almost motionless; heart rate, breathing, and brain wave activity are slow and even

Drowsiness

The infant is either falling asleep or waking up. Body is less active than in irregular sleep but more active than in regular sleep. The eyes open and close; when open, they have a glazed look. Breathing is even but somewhat faster than in regular sleep.

Quiet Alertness

The infant’s body is relatively inactive, with eyes open and attentive. Breathing is even

Waking activity and crying

The infant shows frequent bursts of uncoordinated body activity. Breathing is very irregular. Face may be relaxed or tense and wrinkled. Crying may occur

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

Unexpected death, usually during the night, of infant younger than 1 year of age that remains unexplained

• leading cause of infant mortality in industrialized nations

• neurological weaknesses may prevent babies from acquiring voluntary behaviors that replace reflexes

• mild respiratory infection may increase chances of respiratory failure in vulnerable babies

• SIDS babies more likely to sleep on stomachs than backs + too be wrapped warmly

Sensory Capacities: Touch

Helps stimulate early physical health ‘

• infants are highly sensitive to pain

• 
  

Sensory Capacities: Taste and Smell

From birth, infants prefer sweet tastes and display certain odor preferences

• exposure to a flavor, prenatally or in breast milk, can have long-term effects on baby’s preferences

• in mammals, including humans, sense of smell helps mothers + babies identify each other

Sensory Capacities: Hearing

Can hear wide variety of sounds at birth

• prefer complex sounds over pure tones

• within days, can tell the difference between a variety of sound patterns

• sensitive to voices, biologically prepared for task of acquiring language

• ability to determine precise location of a sound around 6 months

Sensory Capacities: Vision

Least developed of newborn baby’s senses

• fineness of discrimination is limited

• can detect human faces, but at birth, ____ is very unclear

• actively scan environments for anything interesting, and to track moving objects, but ___ movements are slow and inaccurate

• color becomes adultlike around 4 months

Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale

Evaluates newborn’s reflexes, muscle tone, state changes, responsiveness to physical and social stimuli, and other reactions

• scores used to recommend appropriate interventions and to guide parents in meeting baby’s needs

• early changes in scores can predict how a baby will adapt

Bonding

Affection/concern for the infant that may emerge suddenly/gradually

Commonly helped through skin-to-skin contact

Rooming in

infant stays in the mother’s hospital room all or most of the time