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Chapter 14: 1-26
Marriage
legally recognized social contract between two people, traditionally based on a sexual relationship and implying a permanence of the union
We should consider all variations when practicing cultural relativism
Family
A socially recognized group that forms an emotional connection and serves as an economic unit of society
Joined by blood, marriage, cohabitation, or adoption
Family of Orientation
The family into which a person is born
Family of Procreation
Family that is formed through marriage
Monogamy
Married to only one person
Polygamy
Married to more than one person
Usually in the form one one man having multiple wives
Majority of societies accept it, but majority of people do not practice it
Husbands are often older, wealthy, high-status
Bigamy
Act of entering a marriage while still married to another person
A felony in most US states
Bilateral Descent
Pattern of tracing kinship in which you look to both paternal and maternal sides.
Majority of societies use this descent pattern
Kinship
One’s traceable ancestry
Can be based on blood, marriage, or adoption
Unilateral Descent
Pattern of tracing kinship through one parent only
3 types: Patrilineal, Matrilineal, Ambilineal
Patrilineal Descent
Follows father’s line of descent only
In societies with this tracing pattern, only males carry on family surname
Gives males prestige of permanent family membership
Females seen as temporary members
Matrilineal Descent
Follows mother’s side of descent only
Common in Native American societies
Children are seen as belonging to women, so their kinship is traced though maternal ancestors
Ambilineal Descent
Either follows father’s or mother’s side only
Most common in Southeast Asian countries
Choice may be based on desire to follow stronger or more prestigious kinship lines or cultural customs
Patrilocal Residence
Wife lives with or near husband’s blood relatives/family of orientation
Disadvantageous for wives by making them outsiders in their home or community and disconnects them to their own family of orientation
Matrilocal Residence
Husband lives with or near wife’sblood relatives/family of orientation
Disadvantageous for husbands by making them outsiders in their home or community and disconnects them to their own family of orientation
Family Life Cycle
Paul Glick
Most people will grow up, establish families, rear and launch their children, experience an “empty nest” period, and then come to the end of their lives
Cycle continues with each generation
Evelyn Duvall
Elaborated on the model and creates the classic stages of family
Classic Stages of Family Life Cycle
Marriage Family (Childless)
Procreation Family (Children ages 0-2.5)
Preschooler Family (Children ages 2.5-6)
School-age Family (Children ages 6-13)
Teenage Family (Children ages 13-20)
Launching Family (Children begin to leave home)
Empty Nest Family (Adult children have left home)
What was purpose of the Family Life Cycle?
Explain different processes that occur in families over time
Sociologists view each stage as having its own structure with different challenges, achievements, and accomplishments that transition the family from one stage to the next
Use it to study the dynamics of family over time
Success of a family can be measured by how well they adapt to these challenges and transition into each stage
Consumer and marketing researchers use it to determine what goods and services families need as they progress through each stage
Criticisms of Family Life Cycle
Generalizing family life and not accounting for differences in gender, ethnicity, culture, and lifestyle,
Family Life Course
Less rigid model of family life cycle
Recognizes the events that occur in the lives of families but views them as a fluid course rather than in consecutive stages
Accounts for changes in family development and changes in the practice of family life
Nuclear Family
Two parents (traditionally a married husband and wife) and children living in the same household
Extended Family
A household that includes at least one parent and child as well as other relatives
Cohabitation
A man and woman live together in a sexual relationship without being married.
May occur as an effort to spend more time together, save money on living cost, or work out kinks before marriage
Research has found that cohabitation has little effect of success of marriage
May contribute to increase of delay of marriage
Functionalism Perspective of Marriage and Family
Families are an important social institution and play a key role in stabilizing society.
Family members take on status roles in a marriage or family
Members perform certain functions that facilitate the prosperity and development of society
George Murdock
Functionalism
Four Universal Residual Functions of Family:
Sexual
Reproductive
Educational
Economic
Family regulates sexual relations between individuals
Offers socially legitimate sexual outlet to adults, leading to reproduction
Family trains children for adult life
Teaches the ways of thinking and behaving that follow social and cultural norms, values, beliefs, and attitudes, manners, and civility
Teaches gender roles- important for economic function of each family
Division of roles in each family (gender roles)
Instrumental roles: usually men, provides financial support and establishes family status
Expressive roles: usually women, work inside of family, provides emotional support and physical care for children
Differentiation of the roles on the basis of sex ensures that families are well balanced and coordinated
When families move outside of roles, family is thrown off balance and needs to recalibrate to function properly
Conflict Theory Perspective of Marriage and Family
Families are defined as private entities
Leave family matters to those within the family
Highlights the role of power in family life and contends that the family is often not a haven but rather an arena where power struggles can occur.
Power entails performance of family status roles
Person with the most access to valued resources held the most power
Men held more power than women
Find disputes over the division of household labor to be a common source of marital discord.
Tend to study areas of marriage and life that involve inequalities or discrepancies in power and authority, as they are reflective of the larger social structure.
Symbolic Interactionism Perspective on Marriage and Family
Family is a symbol
Family is a group of role players or “actors” who come together to act out their parts to construct a family
Family is not an objective, concrete reality but a social construct that is subject to ever-changing meanings and social norms
Meanings of elements of family change
Recognize how the family status roles of each member are socially constructed, playing an important part in how people perceive and interpret social behavior.
Demography
The study of populations
Three critical aspects of demography
Fertility
Mortality
Migration
Fertility Rate
The average number of children a woman gives birth to during her reproductive years
Birth Rate
A measure noting the number of children born
Usually lower than the fecundity number
Measured using crude birth rate
Crude Birth Rate
The number of live births per 1000 people per year
Fecundity Number
Measures the potential number of children that could be born to women of childbearing age
Mortality Rate
The measure of the number of people who die
Measured using crude death rate
Crude Death Rate
Number of deaths per 1000 people
Migration
Movement of people in and out of an area
Immigration or emigration
Could be voluntary or involuntary
Immigration
Movement of people into an area to take up permanent residence
Emigration
Movement out of an area to another place of permanent residence
Population Composition
The demographic profile of a population
Sex ratio
Population Pyramid
Sex Ratio
The number of men per 100 women
Population Pyramid
A picture of population distribution by age and sex
Malthusian Theory
Three factors would control human population that exceeded the earth’s carrying capacity
War
Famine
Disease
Factors are “positive checks” because they increase mortality rates
Countered by “preventative checks” because they reduce fertility rate
Birth control
Celibacy
People can produce only so much food, so people will run out of food and begin to starve. Then war would start over scarce resources and reduce the population. Then cycle repeats.
Three Reasons Why We Are Continuing to Expand the Population
Technological resources in food production have increased amount and quality of calories we can produce per person
Human ingenuity has developed new medicine to curtail death from disease
The development and widespread use of contraception and other forms of family planning decreases speed of population increase
Zero Population Growth Theory
The environment, rather than the food supply, will play a crucial role in continued health of the planet
Human population is moving rapidly toward complete environmental collapse
Using up resources
Pollution
Advocated for “Zero Population Growth” where number of people entering and leaving a population is equal
Cornucopian Theory
Asserts that human ingenuity can resolve any environmental or social issues that develop
Demographic Transition Theory
Future population growth will develop along a predicted four-stage model
Preindustrial Stage: Birth, death, and infant mortality rates are all high while life expectancy is short
Transitional Stage: Birth rates are higher, the infant mortality rate and the death rates drop, life expectancy increases
Death rates drop due to increased food production and improved medical care
Industrial Stage: Birth rates decline, life expectancy increases, death rates decrease
Increased opportunities for women and access to birth control
Post-Industrial Stage: Birth and death rates low, people are healthier and live longer, and society enters a phase of population stability
Biopolitics
Michel Foucault
The state controls births and deaths
Policy-making
Nutrition and people’s relationship with their health
COVID-19 policies differed depending on the place
Education
Social institution through which members of a society are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms.
Resilient Student
Students who achieve at a higher level than one might expect given their social background
Formal Education
The learning of academic facts and concepts through a formal curriculum
Informal Education
Learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors by
participating in a society.
Occurs in formal education system and at home
Cultural Transformation
The way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture
Included in both formal and informal education
Functionalism Perspective on Society
Education contributes two kinds of functions: Manifest and Latent
Manifest: Intended and visible functions of education
Socialization
Social control (relies in hands of teachers and instructors)
Transmission of culture
Social placement
Cultural Innovation
Latent Functions: Hidden or unintended functions of education
Courtship
Social Networks
Group work
Creation of generation gap
Political and social integration
Conflict Theory Perspective on Education
Do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality. Instead, believe that the educational system reinforces and perpetuates social inequalities that arise from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity.
Negative view on education
Pursues the status quo and pushes people of lower status into obedience
Fulfillment of education is closely related to social class
Low socioeconomic status does not have the same opportunities as high socioeconomic status
Cultural capital results in dominant culture values being rewarded
Hidden curriculum reinforces positions of higher cultural capital, creating inequality between statuses
Plays the role of training working-class students to accept and retain their position as lower members of society
Fulfilled through disparity of resources
Social Placement
Used by people for upward social mobility
College students are more motivated to study areas that will be advantageous on the social ladder
Cultural Capital
Cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency that helps navigate a culture
Alters the experiences and opportunities available between social classes
Higher class have more cultural capital than lower class
Tracking
A formalized sorting system that place students on tracks that perpetuate inequalities
CT: tracking leads to self-fulfilling prophecies in which students live up (or down) to teacher and societal expectations
Feminist Theory Perspective on Education
Aims to understand the mechanisms and roots of gender inequality in education, and their social repercussions
Characterized by unequal treatment and opportunity for women
Seeks to promote women’s rights to equal education
Symbolic Interactionism Perspective on Education
Labeling theory is seen in action
Labels are difficult to get rid of, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy
Labeling theory can significantly impact a student’s schooling
teachers and more powerful social groups within the school dole out labels
that are adopted by the entire school populations
Credentialism
Credentialism
the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications.
Degrees and certificates serve as a symbol of what a person has achieved and allows the labeling of that individual
Religion
Various systems of belief and practice that define what people consider to be sacred or spiritual
Exists as an organized and integrated set of beliefs, behaviors, and norms centered on basic social needs and values
Religious Experience
The conviction or sensation that we are connected to “the divine”
Prayer or meditation
Religious Beliefs
Specific ideas members of a particular faith hold to be true
Religious Rituals
Behaviors or practices that are either required or expected of the members of a particular group
Functionalism Perspective on Religion
Religion depends on society for its existence, value, and significance and vise versa.
Sacred meant extraordinary
Occurs when there is a separation between profane (ordinary life) and the sacred
Most important functions is that it creates opportunities for social interaction and and formation of groups
Religion is about community: social cohesion, social control, meaning and purpose (emotional comfort in crisis), and group integration.
Religion and mortality are the collective mind-set of society and cohesive bonds of social order result from common values in society
Symbolic Interactionism Perspective on Society
Religion is a precipitant of social change
Examined effects of religion on economic activities
Protestant work ethic influenced capitalism
Supported pursuit of material gain by motivating believers to work hard, be successful, and not spend on dumb things
Separate from society
Beliefs and experiences are not sacred unless individuals in a society view them that way
Interactionists interested in what symbols communicate
Conflict Theory Perspective on Society
Religion reflects social stratification of society
Maintains patterns of inequality and status quo
Believes religion promotes the idea to be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely ordained
Religion has been used to support the “divine right” of oppressive monarchs and justify unequal social structures
Extension of working class economic suffering
Inseparable from economy and worker
Feminist Theory is sub of Conflict Theory
Cults
A new religious group that is often viewed with suspicion or negativity.
Cults typically have unorthodox beliefs and practices compared to mainstream religions.
Usually new religious movement or group
Can evolve into a larger organization or transition into sect or denomination
Often has negative connotations
Sect
A small and relatively new group
Established Sects
A religious group that falls between a sect and a denomination. It is a smaller, breakaway group that has distinct characteristics of both sects and denominations.
Has developed more organization and structure than a typical sect.
May maintain distinct beliefs and practices, often in tension with broader society, but it has become more established and recognized over time.
Denomination
Large, mainstream religious organizations that does not claim to be official or state sponsored
Ecclesia
State-sponsored, official religion of a society, and everyone in that society typically belongs to it.
Closely allied with state and secular powers.
Hinduism
Origin: The oldest religion in the world, originating around 4,500 years ago in the Indus River Valley (modern-day India and Pakistan).
Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva: Three main incarnations of the divine, often compared to the Christian Trinity.
Dharma: A set of principles that define one’s duty and “right” actions in life.
Karma: The belief that actions have spiritual consequences, either in this life or future lives (reincarnation).
Sacred Texts: The Vedas, written in Sanskrit, contain hymns and rituals from ancient India.
Buddhism
Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) around 500 B.C.E.
Core Teachings:
Four Noble Truths:
Life is suffering.
Suffering arises from attachment to desires.
Suffering ceases when attachment ceases.
Freedom from suffering is achieved by following the "middle way."
Middle Way: A balanced approach to life, focusing on moderation and mindfulness.
Rejection of Godhead: Emphasis on personal responsibility rather than the worship of gods.
Confucianism
Founder: Confucius (Kung Fu-Tzu), 6th-5th century B.C.E.
Focus: A philosophy more than a religion, focusing on moral practices, self-discipline, respect for authority, and social harmony.
Key Text: Analects, which are the teachings of Confucius.
Core Concept: Moral behavior and social harmony.
Taoism
Founder: Laozi, 6th century B.C.E.
Core Beliefs:
Tao: The “way” or “path” to spiritual peace, harmony, and balance with the universe.
Yin-Yang: The concept of polar forces working in balance.
Virtues: Compassion and moderation.
Focus: A spiritual philosophy, contrasting with Confucianism's focus on day-to-day conduct.
Judaism
Origin: After the Exodus from Egypt in the 13th century B.C.E., Jews became monotheistic, worshiping only one God.
Key Beliefs:
Covenant with God (Yahweh): Jews believe they have a special relationship with God.
Sacred Text: Torah (first five books of the Bible) and Talmud (oral interpretations of the Torah).
Focus: Moral behavior in this life rather than salvation in the afterlife.
Ethnicity and Religion: Jewish identity can be ethnic as well as religious.
Islam
Founder: Prophet Muhammad, born 570 C.E. in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
Core Beliefs:
Monotheistic: Belief in Allah (God) and Muhammad as His messenger.
Sacred Text: Qur’an (Koran).
Five Pillars of Islam:
Belief in one God, Allah, and Muhammad as His prophet.
Daily prayer.
Helping the poor.
Fasting during Ramadan.
Pilgrimage to Mecca.
Belief in Peace and Submission: Islam means “peace” and “submission” to God.
Christianity
Origin: Began 2,000 years ago in Palestine with the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.
Core Beliefs:
Monotheistic: Belief in one God who exists as the Holy Trinity—Father (God), Son (Jesus), and Holy Spirit.
Sacred Text: Bible (including the Old Testament, shared with Judaism).
Key Doctrine: Jesus is the Son of God and the Messiah, who will return to save God’s followers.
Moral Code: The Ten Commandments guide ethical behavior, condemning acts like theft, murder, and adultery.
Power
The ability to exercise one’s will over others
Authority
Accepted power
People agree to follow and listen to these figures because they feel the individuals are worthy of respect
Weber’s Three Types of Authority
Traditional
Charismatic
Legal-Rationale
Traditional Authority
Power is accepted because that has traditionally been the case
People feel invested in the past and feel obligated to perpetuate it
Ruler has no real force to carry out his will or maintain his position but depends primarily on the group’s respect.
Can be intertwined with race, class, and gender
Patrimonialism
Modern form of traditional authority where administration and military serve as personal tools of the ruler.
Officials under patrimonial rule are appointed based on favoritism, have no inherent rights, and their privileges depend entirely on the ruler’s will.
Charismatic Authority
People are drawn to the leader’s personal qualities
Usually emerge in times of crisis, and offer innovative and radical solutions, and may even offer a vision of a new world order
Tend to hold power for short durations because they are likely to be tyrannical as they are heroic
Rational-Legal Authority
Power made legitimate by laws, written rules, and regulations
Power is vested in a particular rationale, system, or ideology, and not necessarily in the person who implements the specifics of that doctrine
A nation that follows a constitution
Anarchy
Absence of organized government
Monarchy
A government in which a single person rules until he or she dies and abdicates the throne
Monarch usually claims the rights to the title by way of hereditary succession or as a result of some sort of divine appointment or calling.
Absolute Monarchy
Monarch has absolute or unmitigated power
Middle East and Africa generally
Constitutional Monarchy
Recognize monarchs who must follow a nation's constitution, limiting their political power.
Countries like Great Britain and Canada have evolved from absolute monarchies, now led primarily by elected officials such as prime ministers.
Modern monarchs persist mainly for their symbolic and ceremonial roles, which many people still value and enjoy.
Oligarchy
Held by a small, elite group
Members do not necessarily achieve their status based on ties to noble ancestry, rather they ascend to positions of power because of military, economic, or similar power circumstances.
Word carries negative connotations and conjures notions of a corrupt group whose members make unfair policy decisions to maintain their privileged positions, so most countries do not identify as an oligarchy
Oligarchies are difficult to dismantle, and they often limit opportunities for social mobility among the lower and middle classes.
Some critics argue that modern democracies, like the U.S., function as oligarchies, due to the strong influence of corporations and wealthy individuals on politics.
Decisions are made based on personal benefit rather than for the collective
Dictatorship
Dictatorship concentrates power in a single person or small group with absolute authority over government and citizens.
Dictators often suppress individual freedoms, using corruption, fear, and control to maintain power.
Common tactics include military force, economic control, intimidation, and violence, making rebellion difficult.
Many dictators begin as military leaders and are accustomed to using force against opposition.
Some dictators rely on charisma, gaining followers who believe in their unique authority (e.g., Kim Jong-Il and Kim Jong-Un).
Not all dictatorships follow a specific ideology—some are focused solely on preserving the leader’s control.
No constitution
Totalitarian Dictatorship
Totalitarian dictatorships are the most extreme, controlling all areas of life, including jobs, religion, and family size.
Citizens in totalitarian states are often required to publicly show loyalty, such as by joining marches or demonstrations.
Democracy
Democracy gives all citizens an equal voice, regardless of socioeconomic status, especially in voting and shaping policy.
A just and comprehensive constitution outlines the roles and limits of both leaders and citizens.
Basic rights in a democracy include the freedom to form political parties, vote in elections, speak freely, publish freely, assemble, and avoid unlawful imprisonment.
Elected leaders are bound by constitutional rules, including limits on their power and term length.
Laws and regulations in democracies should ideally reflect the will of the majority, though total individual freedom is still constrained by law.
Representative Democracy
Citizens elect officials who make decisions on their behalf at local, state, and federal levels.
State
A community that has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a territory
Federalism
Mode of government that aims to avoid a centralized powerful government, by separating the power sub-unit government (national, state, cities, counties, etc.)
Pros: Allows for diverse decisions, lessons bureaucracy for resources
Cons: More bureaucracy for citizens, unequal balance of power
Liberal/Left
Government must intervene in the economy to make sure people are being treated equally
All injustices against minorities need to be rectified so we can move forward as a nation
Collective action; government needs to intervene more
Conservative/Right
Government should allow free market to develop economy
Must focus on strong values that built the nation
Individual Liberty; Government should intervene less
Fascism
Centers around extreme nationalism and an opposition democracy and liberalism
Revolves around a ruler who uses absolute power to suppress the individual freedom of citizens, making everyone completely subject to the power of the state
