Introduction to Ecology and Environmental Challenges

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Individual

a living being; the most fundamental unit of ecology

Ecology

scientific study of the interactions among organisms and the environment

Biotic

living environment

Abiotic

nonliving environment

Ecological systems

entities that have their own internal processes and interact with their surroundings

Adaptations

the characteristics of an organism that make it well suited to its environment

Population

consist of individuals of the same species living in a particular area

Species

a group of organisms that can potentially interbreed naturally with each other and produce fertile offspring

Community

composed of all populations living together in a particular area

Ecosystem

composed of one or more communities of living organisms interacting with their nonliving physical and chemical environments which include water, air, temperature, sunlight and nutrients

Landscape

includes multiple ecosystems that are connected by the movement of individuals, populations, matter, and energy

Biosphere

includes all the ecosystems and landscapes on earth

Law of conservation of matter

states that matter cannot be created or destroyed, but can only change form

Law of conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics)

states that energy cannot be created or destroyed

Dynamic steady state

when gains or losses are in balance

Phenotype

behavior

Genotype

genes it carries

Evolution

a change in the genetic composition of a population over time

Natural selection

change in the frequency of genes in a population through differential survival and reproduction of individuals that possess certain phenotypes

Fitness

the survival and reproduction of an individual

Producers (autotrophs)

an organism that uses photosynthesis to convert solar energy into organic compounds or uses chemosynthesis to convert chemical energy into organic compounds

Consumers (heterotrophs)

an organism that obtains its energy from other organisms

Mixotrophs

when species take a mixed approach to obtaining their energy

Predators

organisms that kill and partially or entirely consume another individual (prey)

Parasitoids

represent a special kind of predator; they lay their eggs on or inside other animals so when the eggs hatch into the larvae, they consume the host individual from the inside and kill it

Parasites

organisms that live in or on another organism

Pathogen

when a parasite causes a disease

Herbivores

organisms that consume producers (plants and algae)

Competition

when two species have an interaction with negative effects on both species that require the same limited resource to survive, grow and reproduce

Mutualism

when two species interact in a way such that each species receives benefits from the other

Commensalisms

interaction in which two species live in close association and one species receives a benefit, while the other experiences neither a benefit nor a cost

Symbiotic relationship

a close physical relationship between two different types of organisms

Scavengers

consume dead animals

Detritivores

break down dead organic matter waste products into smaller particles

Decomposers

break down dead organic matter into simpler elements and compounds that can be recycled through the ecosystem

Habitat

the place, or physical setting, in which an organism lives

Niche

the range of abiotic and biotic conditions an organism can tolerate

Manipulative experiments

a hypothesis is tested by altering the factor that is hypothesized to be an underlying cause of the phenomenon

Manipulation (treatment)

the factor we want to vary in an experiment

Control

a manipulation that included all aspects of an experiment except the factor of interest

Experimental unit

the object to which we apply the manipulation

Replication

being able to produce a similar outcome multiple times

Randomization

every experimental unit has an equal chance of being assigned a particular manipulation

Microcosms

simplified ecological system that attempt to replicate the essential features of ecological system in a lab or field setting

Natural experiment

relies on the natural variation in the environment to test a hypothesis

Mathematical model

an investigator designs a representation of a system with a set of equations that corresponds to the hypothesized relationship among each of the systems components

Global warming

the increase in the average temperature of the planet due to an increases concentration of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere

Greenhouse gases

compounds in the atmosphere that absorb the infrared heat energy emitted by Earth, with some of the energy emitted back toward earth

Climate

typical atmospheric conditions that occur throughout the year

Weather

the variation in temperature and precipitation over periods of course or days

Atmosphere

the 600-km-thick layer of air that surrounds the planet

Greenhouse effect

the process of solar radiation striking Earth, being converted to infrared radiation, and being absorbed and re-emitted by atmospheric gases

Albedo

the fraction of solar energy reflected by an object

Solar equator

the latitude receiving the most direct rays of the sun

Regression

a statistical tool that determines whether there is a relationship between two variables and that also describes the nature of that relationship

Atmospheric currents

the circulations of air between the surface of Earth and the atmosphere

Hadley Cells

the two circulation cells of air between the equator and 30°N and 30°S latitudes

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

the area where the two Hadley cells converge and cause large amounts of precipitation

Polar cells

the atmospheric currents that move air between 60° and 90° latitudes in the northern and southern hemispheres

Ferrel cells

areas of air circulation that lack distinct atmospheric currents between 30° and 60° latitude

Coriolis effect

the deflection of an object's path due to the rotation of Earth

Gyres

a large-scale water circulation pattern between continents

Upwelling

an upward movement of ocean water

El Nino- Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

the periodic changes in winds and ocean currents in the South Pacific, causing weather changes throughout much of the world

Thermohaline circulation

a global pattern of surface- and deepwater currents that flow as a result of variations in temperature and salinity that change the density of water

Rain shadows

a region with dry conditions found on the leeward side of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean, causing precipitation on the windward side

Convergent evolution

a phenomenon in which two species descended from unrelated ancestors look similar because they have evolved under similar selective forces

Biomes

a geographic region that contains communities composed of organisms with similar adaptations

Climate diagrams

a graph that plots the average monthly temperature and precipitation of a specific location on Earth

Growing season

the months in a location that are warm enough to allow plant growth

Tundra

the coldest biome characterized by a treeless expanse above permanently frozen soil

Permafrost

a phenomenon whereby layers of soil are permanently frozen

Boreal forest (taiga)

a biome densely populated by evergreen needle-leaved trees, with a short growing season and severe winters

Temperate rainforest

a biome known for mild temperatures and abundant precipitation dominated by evergreen forests

Temperate seasonal forest

a biome with moderate temperature and precipitation conditions dominated by deciduous trees

Woodland/shrubland

a biome characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters, a combination that favors the growth of drought-tolerant grasses and shrubs

Temperate grassland/cold desert

a biome characterized by hot, dry summers and cold, harsh winters and dominated by grasses, non woody flowering plants, and drought-adapted shrubs

Tropical rainforest

a warm and rainy biome characterized by multiple layers of lush vegetation

Tropical seasonal forests

A biome with warm temperatures and pronounced wet and dry seasons dominated by deciduous trees that shed their leaves during the dry season

Subtropical deserts

a biome characterized by hot temperatures, scarce rainfall, long growing seasons, and sparse vegetation

Lotic

characterized by flowing fresh water

Stream (creek)

a narrow channel of fast-flowing fresh water

Rivers

a wide channel of slow-flowing fresh water

Riparian zone

a band of terrestrial vegetation alongside rivers and streams that is influenced by seasonal flooding and elevated water tables

Allochthonous

inputs of organic matter, such as leaves, that come from outside an ecosystem

Autochthonous

inputs of organic matter that are produced by algae and aquatic plants inside an ecosystem

Ponds

an aquatic biome that is smaller than a lake and is characterized by non flowing fresh water with some area of water that is too deep for plants to rise above the water's surface

Lakes

an aquatic biome that is larger than a pond and is characterized by non flowing fresh water with some area of water that is too deep for plants to rise above the water's surface

Littoral zone

the shallow area around the edge of a lake or pond containing rooted vegetation

Limnetic zone (Pelagic zone)

the open water beyond the littoral zone, where the dominant photosynthetic organisms are floating algae

Profundal zone

the area in a lake that is too deep to receive sunlight

Benthic zone

the area consisting of the sediments at the bottoms of lakes, ponds, and oceans

Epilimnion

the surface layer of the water in a lake or pond

Hypolimnion

the deeper layer of water in a lake or pond

Thermocline

a middle depth of water in a lake or pond that experiences a rapid change in temperature over a relatively short distance in depth

Spring turnover

the vertical mixing of lake water that occurs in early spring, assisted by winds that drive the surface currents

Stratification

the condition of a lake or pond when the warmer, less dense surface water floats on the cooler, denser water below

Fall turnover

the vertical mixing of lake water that occurs in fall, assisted by winds that drive the surface currents

Freshwater wetlands

an aquatic biome that contains standing fresh water, or soils saturated with fresh water for at least part of the year, and is shallow enough to have emergent vegetation throughout all depths

Salt marshes

a saltwater biome that contains nonwoody emergent vegetation