psych chap 1 and 2

Microsystem

Each person’s immediate surroundings, such as a family or peer group

Mesosystem

Consisting of connections among other systems.

Macrosystem

Larger social setting, including cultural values, economic policies, and political processes.

Butterfly Effect

A small change in the starting point can have large differences in how the whole processes later.

Psychosocial Domain

Emotions, temperament, social skills. Including family, friends, but also including cultural differences in gender roles.

Biosocial Domain

All growth and change that happens in the body (motor skills included)

Cohort

People born in the same time period that move through life together and witness the same events (technology, cultural shifts, etc) around the same ages.

Historical Context

Historical context allows us to better process the reasons behind theories and how they emerged.

Social Class

a person’s position in society based off of income, occupation, education, and residence.

Exosystem

Local institutions such as a church or school; influences the effects of mesosystems.

Theory

Comprehensive set of ideas

Grand theory

hallmarks of psychology that seek to explain all of society and human experience.

cross-sectional research

research design that compares people of differing ages but similar characteristics.

emergent theory

 a process where teachers plan activities and projects based on the specific group of children they are working with, taking into account their skills, needs, and interests.

reinforcers

consequences that increase the frequency of an action

longitudinal research

research design where the same group of people are followed over a span of time and development is constantly observed

classical conditioning

learning process where a meaningful stimulus (smell of food) is connected to a neutral stimulus (beeping sound) that had no meaning before conditioning. AKA stimulus = ringing a bell and smelling food = response = dog salivating wanting food. Focuses on the before; HUMAN INTERFERENCE

operant conditioning

learning process where an action is followed by something desired or by something unwanted. AKA voluntary behavior = eating mushroom = wanted behavior (animal enjoys and will repeat action) or = unwanted behavior (animal hates and won’t repeat action). Focuses on the after; NO HUMAN INTERFERENCE

self-efficacy

Someone’s belief that they can execute something in order to gain something beneficial to them. Ex: I know I can do well on this child psych test, so I’ll self-motivate to study for it.

Psychosexual stage

Freud’s thoughts on personality development, split into 5 categories through childhood. #1

Accommodation

Piaget: Old ideas have to conform to include new experiences (separating cats and dogs into their own groups)

Zone of Proximal Development

A metaphorical area that surrounds a learner which separates the barrier between what they can do by themselves and what they need assistance in doing.

Nature of the study of human development

seeking to understand how and why people change over time.

creator of the ecological approach to human development

Urie Bronfenbrenner

Emphasis of Ecological Approach

Bronfenbrenner believed that people need to be studied in their own comforts rather than in a laboratory as it’s unnatural. Ecological approach consists of microsystems, mesosystems, etc.

Domains of Human Development

Biosocial development: All growth and change that happens in the body (motor skills included).

Cognitive Development: All mental processes that people use to gain knowledge about environment (perception, imagination, judgement, education included).

Psychosocial Development: emotions, temperment, social skills. Including family, friends, but also including cultural differences in gender roles.

Poverty level income in the united states

Household of 3 people with total income under $19,790 (2014). $23,030 (2022).

Group with the greatest percentage living in poverty

NatAfrican American

rights of children who participate in research studies

Child must show interest in participating, if unable then one or both parents must give the information requiring informed consent. After the experiment, family must be told what the experiment was.

role of theories in human development

To better understand how and why we change over a period of time.

Purposes of developmental theories

Explain how and why we develop and what influences our development.

Psychoanalytic determinants of human development

one’s unconscious and irrational thoughts as a child drive and motivate human behavior. Led to Freud’s idea of psychosexual development and Eriksonian’s psychosocial theories.

Learning Theory determinants of human development

Believing that we can learn human development through behavior rather than the irrational thoughts of children. Classical conditioning, Operant Conditioning, Social Learning (monkey see monkey do),

Sociocultural Theory determinants of human development

Theory holds that development arises from the interactions with the people and culture around them. Social interaction, the zone of proximal development, and different cultures all encompass the theory.

Epigenetic systems theory determinants of human development

Views development as a product of interaction between biological and environmental forces. It includes both the genetic origins of behavior and the direct influence of the environment on the expression of these genes.

Order of Freud’s stages

\#1 Oral (Birth-Infancy): Everything goes in a child’s mouth. If unsuccessful, people may crunch on ice or put things in their mouth.

\#2 Anal (1.5-3): successful control over bodily functions. If unsuccessful, either anal retentive (perfectionist, extremely organized) or anal expulsive (chaotic and unorganized).

\#3 Phallic (3-6): children having the same sexual desires as adults; boys lust after their mothers and mimic dad in an attempt to replace him. Girls vice versa. If unsuccessful, healthy relationships with family and partners may be harder to maintain.

\#4 Latency (6-11): Sexual desires die down, same-sex relationships are preferred and begin to form.

\#5 Genital (Adolescence-Adulthood): Seeking sexual stimulation and satisfaction in adult relationships.

Nature of Industry vs. Inferiority

Children practice and master a skill OR feel inferior, unable to do anything well.

Researcher Associated with Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner

Way in Which Social Learning Theory emphasizes learning

individuals learn by observing the behaviors of others

Emphasis of Cognitive Theory

Focuses on how changes in how people think change over time. Thoughts and expectations affect attitudes and beliefs. Piaget’s four stages apply to this.

Focus of Piaget’s Theory of Development

Believed that looking at how children come to their own conclusions was more beneficial than observing what they already know. Cognitive development occurs in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Piaget’s most advanced stage of cognitive development

Formal Operational (12-Adulthood): Using abstract and hypothetical thoughts; able to use analysis and emotion. Ethics and social/moral issues become interesting.

Piagatian stage at which child begins to think symbolically

Preoperational (2-6): thinking with symbols, language, but only see through their perspective. Increased imagination, language becomes self-expression.

Tasks of Sensorimotor stage

Birth-2 yrs old, infants use motor skills and senses to understand the world around them. Learning is active, no rational thoughts. Infants learn that objects still exist when disappear, and begin to think through their actions.

Basic types of adaptation (Piaget)

Assimilation: New experiences are conformed to fit into old ideas (referring to a cat as a dog)

Accommodation: Old ideas have to conform to include new experiences (separating cats and dogs into their own groups)

Major limitation of grand theories

There is no “correct theory” or one that is all-encompassing. Developmentalists take bits of each theory to come to their own conclusions.