bio II exam 2

FUNGI

* Domain?
* 6 monolithic groups? (CANBBG)
* Originated from which single-cellular flagellate protist group?

eukarya, chytrid, asco, neo, basidio, blast, glomer, opisthokonts

what eukaryotic kingdom does this describe?

* chitin cell walls (in insects too hehe)
* filamentous or yeasts
* composed of hyphae (which may be separated by hypha)

fungi

hyphae cells can (or cant) be seperated via septa

* _____- has 1 nucleus per septa
* _____ - no septa but hundreds of nuclei in continuous cytoplasmic mass

septa hypha, coenocytic hypha

FUNGI

____: single thread-like cell (but can house more than 1 nuclei separated by septa)

____: interconnected hyphae + main body of fungi

____:  reproductive body, “mushroom part”types

____: the stalk/stem

____: dome top part

____: thin tissue that hold spores

hypha, mycelium, fruiting body, stipe, cap, gills

FUNGI

* 3 ways fungi reproduce asexually
* what is unique about the dikaryotic stage of reproduction?

conidiospores, fragmentation, budding, plasmogamy/haploid nuclei cell

list order of fungal sexual reproduction

plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis, release

are fungi autotrophs or heterotrophs?  are they more closely related to plants or animals?

heterotrophs, animals

* which phylum are club fungi in?
* which phylum are sac fungi like yeast, mold, truffles in?
* which phylum is Rhizopus (bread mold) in?

basidiomycota, ascomycota, zygomycota

“Imperfect fungi” do not produce _____

(to our knowledge) and are in the phylum _____ and reproduce via this type of spore: ___

sexually, deutermycota, conidiospore

* lichen: symbiotic mutualistic relationship formed between what 2 organisms?
* ____: symbiotic mutualistic relationship formed between plant roots and fungi

fungi and algae, mycorrhizae

what 2 infections do parasitic fungi cause?

athletes foot and ringworm

3 types of fungi nutrition


1. ____: obtain nutrients from dead organisms
2. ____: absorbs nutrients from live host’s tissue
3. ____: symbiosis that is beneficial to both fungi and host

saprophytes, parasites, mutualistic

* In lichens:

a. ____ receive nutrients and energy

b. ____ receive protection and moisture

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* mycorrhizae have a special penetration mycelium called ____


* __% of plants have mycorrhizae

fungi, algae, arbuscules, 90

PLANTAE KINGDOM

* are green algae include in the plant kingdom?
* are fungi included in the plant kingdom? 
* what do algae and plants have in common?

yes, no, photosynthetic, cellulose, starch, chlorophyll a and b

plant adaptions for terrestrial life:

* **___:** coating that prevents zygote from drying
* **___:** waxy layer prevents water loss
* **___**: openings for gas exchange and prevent water loss
* ___: root-like structure for anchor and absorption
* ___: xylem and phloem for water/food transport
* ___: life cycle alternated between haploid + diploid generations (haplodiplontic)
* ___: root fungi mutualistic symbiosis

sphoropollenin, cuticle, stomata, rhizoids, vascularity, alternation of generations, mycorrhizae

* as plants became better adapted to land, which phase of the life cycle became the most dominant generation? 
* what part of the body plant is haploid?
* what part of the body plant is diploid? 


* are spores haploid or diploid? 

a. produced by process of ___ in ____

* what stage produces the gametes?a. produced by process of *___* in *____* (archegonia, antheridia)

sporophyte, gametophyte, sporophyte, haploid, meiosis, sporangium, gametophyte, mitosis, gametangia

which plant kingdom phylum is:

* **non-vascular** (ergo no specialized functions)

a. but untrue as root, stem, and leaves

* photosynthetic
* “amphibians of the plant kingdom.”
* both **asexual** and **sexual**
* require water for sexual reproduction (**bc flagellated sperm**)
* **dominant gametophyte** stage
* Liverworts, hornwarts, mosses

\*the worts came before moss\*

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bryophytes

___: (in asexual reproduction) multicellular vegetative bodies/buds (lense shaped) that are in cups

gemma

which plant is a true byrophyte?

moss

how are bryophytes important to ecology and economics?

(when bryophytes die, forms a thin soil layer)

* ecology: helps prevent ____
* economics: used as ___or burned as ___

erosion, potting soil, fuel

which plant kingdom phylum is:

* **vascular** but **seedless** (so still restricted to moist habitat)
* **dominant sporophyte** stage
* **true** **roots**
* most are **homosporous**
* club moss, ferns

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tracheophytes

2 tracheophyte clades:


1. ___:

* club mosses (not true moss)
* has **true roots** but **lycophylls**
* sporophylls + strobilus
* **microphylls**


2. ___:

* ferns, whisk ferns, horsetails
* has fronds, sori, fiddleheads
* **Euphylls**
* **macrophylls**

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what do both clades have in common?

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lycophytes, ptedriophytes/monilophytes, seedless

____small leaf-like structure w/ single vein (only in lycophytes!!)

____: large leaf-like leaves with many veins (all other plant phylas)

____: bisexual spores; produces 1 spore type that can become male or female

____: spores are already male or female

microphylls, macrophylls, homospores, heterospores

In tracheophytes (as a whole), which vascular organ evolved first? second? third?

stem, roots, leaves

FERN LIFE CYCLE

* sori contain the _____
* process of ____ releases its spores
* process of mitosis creates the ______ (heart shape)
* this gametophyte contains both the antheridium and archegonium!
* flagellated sperm uses water to ___ to ___ (female gametophyte)
* fertilize!
* zygote matures into embryo which then matures into ______

sporangium, meiosis, gametophyte, swim, archegonia, sporophyte

Note: Ferns are seedless but are closest living relative to ____

seed plants

club mosses have a cluster of microphyll-type leaves; these clusters form a cone.  what is this cone called?

strobilus

FERNS CONTINUED

____: horizontal underground stem

____: tightly curled coils of young sporophyll leaf (emerges from rhizome)

____: sporangia clusters on back of sporophyll leaf

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* fern’s germinating spore develops into a small __-shaped gametophyte anchored to the soil by ___.

rhizome, fiddlehead, sori, heart, rhizoids

* _____:__ primary composition of cell wall synthesized by its _____


* _____: contents that makeup inside of cell (cytoplasm, organelles, etc)

cellulose, protoplasts, protoplasts,

_____: undifferentiated cells that divide indefinitely and give rise to differentiated cells/specialized area for cell growth

* ____ meristems: located on tip of root/stems

a. primary growth (lengthens stem/roots)

b. produces leaves/flowers

c. protected by root cap and stored in primordia leaf

* ____ meristems: located on sides of root/stems

a. secondary growth (widens)

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* 2 types


1. ____: APICAL; adds secondary xylem + phloem
2. ____: LATERAL; replaces epidermis into thicker periderm aka cork/bark (basically gives rise to cork/bark)

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* Xylem produced inward, phloem produces outward; bc meristems produce xylem cells first then phloem cells

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meristems, apical, lateral, vascular cambium, cork cambium

3 types of vascular tissue

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1. _____: protects plant; one cell thick layer

* ____: waxy and prevents water loss
* ____: open and close stomata for regulating gas exchange + transpiration (only found in epidermis cells containing chloroplasts)
* ____: hair-like outgrowths to reduce water loss, reflect light, and defense


2. _____:

* ____: transports water + minerals like PPN (phosphate, potassium, nit)

a. vessels and tracheids

* ____: transports water + organic material (multidirectional flow)

a. sieve plates and companion cells

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3. _____: functions as storage, photosynthesis, support, short-distance transport

* its 3 cell types: ____
* \

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dermal tissue, cuticle, guard cells. trichomes, vascular tissue, xylem, phloem, ground tissue, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma

3 type of ground tissue cells


1. _____: (imagine like filler tissue) functions as storage, photosynthesis, secretion

* thin walls
* living protoplasts = so long life


2. _____: (imagine celery) functions as support bc really bendy/flexible

* thin flexible walls
* living protoplasts = long life


3. _____: (imagine wood) functions as structure and protection bc composed of lignin

* hard thick walls
* dead at maturity

parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma

4 different zones of roots (top-→ bottom)


1. Zone of _____: cells mature into different types of tissue

* Zone of _____: cells increase in size (remember the vacuole expansion thing)
* Zone of ____: composed of apical meristems, active division going on in here


* _____: protects meristem and has gravity role

maturity, elongation, cell division, root cap

Different root types:

* ____: single large root with emerging smaller roots


* ____: system of smaller roots of similar diameter
* ____: any root that emerges out of stem/non-root place

a. ___ roots: thick roots that stick into ground and withstand wind (ex: corn)

b. ___ roots: roots extend into air and absorb water from air (ex: orchids)

c. ______: spongy outgrowth that sticks out of water in swamps/wet environments for oxygen intake

d. ___ roots: cork-screw root that spirals deeper into the ground each year (ex: lily flower bulbs)

e. ___ roots: peg-like roots of plants that lack chlorophyll; penetrates into plant stem (ex: dodder plant)

f. ___ roots: stores excess starch (ex: roots that grow from sweet potato, carrot, radish)

g. ___ roots: stores water, especially in arid regions (ex: pumpkins)

h. ___ roots: for extra structural support (ex: fig and tropical trees)

taproot, fibrous, adventitious, prop, aerial, pneumatophores, contractile, parasitic, food storage, water storage, buttress

* ___ point of attachment of leaf and stem
* ___: area of stem between 2 nodes
* ___: flat part of leaf
* ___: leaf stalk
* ___: develops into stems w/leaves or flowers
* ___: extends stem

node, internode, blade, petiole, axillary bud, terminal bud

Growth rings on tree stumps

* light rings = _____
* dark rings = _____

spring wood, summer wood

* ____: life cycle is 1 growing season (ex: marigolds and corn)
* ____: life cycle is 2 growing seasons (ex: carrots and parsley)
* ____: plants grow and produce year after year (ex: trees, shrubs, vines)

annuals, biannuals, perennials

Modified stems

* ____: swollen underground stem with fleshy leaves


* ____: resembles bulbs^ but no fleshy leaves
* ____: horizontal underground stem with adventitious roots
* ____: horizontal stems with long internodes that grow along the surface of ground
* ____: swollen tips of rhizomes ^ that contain carbs (ex: potatoes!)
* ____: twine around support and aids in climbing (looks like stretched out telephone cord)

bulbs, corms, rhizome, runners/stolons, tubers, tendrils

Leaf morphology

* ____: single blade


* ____: blade divided into leaflets
* ____: has parallel veins
* ____: has net-like veins

simple leaf, compound leaf, dicot, eudicot

_____: ground tissue found in leaves containing chloroplasts for photosynthesis

* has 2 types:


1. _____: contains air spaces for taking in CO2/releasing O2 process of photosynthesis
2. _____: column-shaped and located right under upper epidermis; where majority of chloroplast is (bc closer to sun duh)

mesophyll, spongy, palaside

Recall that flowering is triggered by day and seasonal cues; photoperiods can be manipulated commercially

* Poinsettias (Mexican red xmas flower) can be manipulated by light in greenhouses, so it grows in time for holidays)


* Winter wheat cant flower without being chilled, then its seed will bloom in spring time

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say yes

yes

Flower whorls

* ____: (whorl 4) _____


* ____: (whorl 3) _____
* ____: (whorl 2) collective term for the ___ and its structures
* ____: (whorl 1) collective term for the ____ and its structures

calyx, sepals, corolla, petals, androecium, stamen, gynoecium, carpals

* ____: flower has both stamens and carpals
* ____: flower lack either stamens or carpals (hence unisex flowers)

perfect flower, imperfect flower

* ____ flowers → Bilateral symmetry
* ____ flowers → Radial symmetry

later evolved, primitive

Double fertilization process


1. Pollen grain (contains 2 cells: generative cell and pollen tube cell) adheres to stigma
2. Pollen tube penetrates into the style
3. Pollen tube cell grows deeper into style, whereas generative cell divides into 2 sperm cells
4. Pollen tube penetrates ovary in its hole called “micropyle”
5. 1 sperm fertilize with egg to make zygote, whereas other sperm fertilizes with 2 polar nuclei/central cell to make endosperm

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say yes

yes

types of pollination

____: flower’s pollen pollinates stigma of same flower (in monoecious flowers)

____: flower A’s pollen pollinates flower B’s stigma (in diecious flowers)

a. Insects, birds, humans (artificial hybridization), and wind can do this

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know that there was co-evolution: angiosperms evolved during Cretaceous period, and pollinating insects also evolved during this time and helped the angiosperms evolve

self pollination, cross pollination

Seedling parts

(remember – Seed = mature ovule\*)

* _____: embryonic leaf that forms the first leaf/leaves

a. Monocots and eudicots

* _____: embryonic root that forms the first root
* _____: forms the stem
* _____: has shoot apical meristem and tiny foilage leaf called ‘plumule’

cotyledon, radicle, hypocotyl, epicotyl

_____: fruit that splits open at maturity

* Splits open to disperse seeds
* Ex: legumes

_____: fruit doesn’t split open at maturity

* Depends on decomposition or animal consumption to disperse seeds
* Ex: nuts

dehiscent, indehiscent

_____: a “pulling force” as water vaporizes from leaf stomata

_____: water molecules stick to each other

_____: water molecules stick to xylem walls

_____: water goes from high → low concentration through plasma membranes

transpiration, cohesion, adhesion, osmosis

___: if plant cell placed into ___ → cell expands

*___:* if plant cell placed into ____ → cell shrinks

turgid, water, plasmolysis, sucrose

_____ deal with drought via morphological adaptions like:

a.     Dormancy

b.     Less leaves – deciduous plants (plants that shed leaves)

c.      Cuticle

d.     Reducing # of stomata

e.     Having stomata in pits in the leaf

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say yes

leaves

Topsoil: a combo of what 3 things?

minerals, living organisms, humus

CARINIVEROUS PLANTS

* Grow in __ soils which lack ___
* Traps/eats insects to make up for their lack of ___
* Has modified ___ for luring/trapping


* Digests organisms via secreted ___
* Ex: venus fly trap, pitcher plant, sundew

acidic, nitrogen, nitrogen, leaves, enzymes

How are we dealing with food security issues?

* _____: focuses on increasing plants’ mineral uptake/storage


* GMO plants

a. Secrete ___ to solubilize ___

b. ____ plasma transport genes and transfer them into other plants

food fortification, citrate, phosphate, clone

______:__ use to plants to concentrate and breakdown pollutants; 3 methods -


1. ____: Containment is broken down
2. ____: Contaminant is released via stomata
3. ____: Contanimant is concentrated in plant shoots

* All the pollutants are later harvested

phytoremediation, phytodegration, phytovolatilization, phytoaccumulation

_____: divided into 4 eons > subdivided into eras > subdivided into periods 

* what are the 4 eons in order? (HAPP)

geological time, haeden, archean, protoerzoic, phanerzoic

meteor hit earth ___ BYA

* when this happened, oceans ____ and our mantle melted to ____ C degrees


* Earth began to change when ____ levels shifted
* ____ converted rock into soil
* CO2 then formed carbonic acid → decreased CO2 → lowers earth temperature 

4\.6, vaporized, 2000, co2, weathering

Crust created slabs of rock = **_____** (under continents + oceans)

* When it shifts, it creates **____**


* 2 supercontinents formed: 


1. ____ (all continents)
2. ____ (all current southern hemisphere continents

a. ____ (formed from Gondwana)

plates, plate tectonics, rodinia, gondwana, pangea

life first emerged in which eon?

* ____: diversification of multicellular organisms
* animals appeared and plants transition to land

archean, cambrian explosion,

2 theories on how earth’s organic molecules formed


1. _____ theory: meteors/comets that slammed into earth possibly carried organic materials, but we discovered that meteor carbon isotopes didnt match with earth’s
2. ______ theory: although heavily debated, early atmosphere’s composition was thought to have CO2, nitrogen, water vapor, hydrogen

* This chemical makeup is called **reducing atmosphere** bc carbon availability and its electrons = don't require tons of energy to form life

extraterrestrial, earth

CONDITIONS OF EARLY EARTH

* Did Haeden eon support life?
* Earth’s first organisms emerged + lived in ____ temperatures

no, high

* what process produced atmosphere’s O2?


* O2 atmosphere interacted with UV radiation = ___

a. this makes what possible?

oxygenic photosynthesis, ozone layer, life on land

Mitochondria and chloroplasts entered proto-eukaryotes via **____** (in this exact order)

endosymbiosis

evolution of endomembrane system caused by infolding of ______

* _____ accounts for eukaryotic complexity


1. Physical separation of translation/transcription adds levels of gene expression
2. Golgi apparatus and ER - facilitate transport and localizes specific _____ inside cell

cell membrane, nuclear membrane, proteins

4 plant phyla (in order)?

bryophytes, tracheophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms

4 types of growth in plants


1. ____: meristems continue to produce different tissues, similar to human STEM cells, can become anything!
2. ____: animal and plant organ growth only goes to a certain size
3. ____: lengthens root/shoot
4. ____: widens root/shoot

indeterminate growth, determinate growth, primary growth, secondary growth

label accordingly

A:

B:

C:

D:

E:

F:

pith, primary xylem, secondary xylem, vascular cambium, secondary phloem, primary phloem, cortex, cork cambium, periderm

leaves grow from the ________

* they don’t really have secondary growth but can\*

primadoria

Leaf vs leaflet

* ____: If its coming from an axil bud
* ____: If its not coming from an axil bud

Veination

* ____: all veins extend from midvein


* ____: veins intersect and come from a central point of the petiole 

Shape types

* ____: no lobes


* ____: still 1 leaf but lobed (gravity falls leaf)
* ____: multiple leaflets 

leaf, leaflet, pinnate, palmate, simple, lobed, compound

Shoot apical meristems create 3 types of primary-tissue making meristems:


1. _____: this meristem will make dermal tissue (→epidermis)
2. _____: this meristem will make vascular tissue (→primary xylem and phloem)
3. _____: this meristem will make ground tissue (→pith, cortex)

protoderm, procambium, ground meristem

MOSS LIFE CYCLE

* spores ____ to make gametophytes
* male sporophyte’s antheridia will release its ____ to swim to ____ (female gametophyte)
* fertilize!
* zygote will mature into embryo which matures into _____
* sporophyte will release its ____

germinate, flagellated sperm, archegonia, sporophyte, sporangia

MANCHURIA LIFE CYCLE

* spores ____ to make gametophytes
* mature thallus (male gametophyte) will release its ___ to swim to the ___ (female gametophyte)
* fertilize!
* zygote will mature into embryo which matures into _____
* sporophyte will release its ___

germinate, flagellated sperm, sporophyte, sporangia

Order of terrestrial life adaptations?

(hint: put on covering, drink water and eat, get in the car, bloom in the shower)

cuticle, vascular tissue, seeds, flowers

know that 90% of absorbed water from roots is lost to atmosphere (hence why guard cells are saviors man!!)

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say yes

yes

* integument develops into = ?
* ovule develops into = ?
* ovary develops into = ?

seed coat, seed, fruit

During the Mesozoic era (rise/fall of dinosaurs), what type of plants were dominant?

_____: Slow-growing tropical gymnosperms

cycads

____: spore that produces female gametophyte

____: spore that produces male gametophyte

megaspore, microspore

* Do gymnosperms have flowers and fruits?
* Do they have cones?
* Are conifers monoecious or diecious?

a. commercial uses

nom, yes, monoecious, timber, paper, resin, anticancer

What 3 adaptations enabled gymnosperms to thrive in cold, dry habitats?

seed, wind-blown pollen, wood

Are cycads (old house front yard plant) monoecious or dioecious? 

Commercial uses?

dioecious, landscaping/ornamental

What is the only living species of Ginkgophytes?

Commercial uses?

gingko biloba, male plants used for landscaping

Phylum Anthophyta - What are 4 critical innovations that helped them be successful?

seed, flowers, fruits, endosperm

what does this describe?

* 1 cotyledon
* Long narrow leaves w/parallel veins
* Scattered vascular bundles
* Petal sets of 3
* Fibrous roots

monocot

what does this describe?

* 2 cotyledons
* Broad leaves w/network veins
* Ring vascular bundles
* Petal sets of 4-5
* Taproots

eudicot

* when mature, what structure forms fruit?

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* Types of fruit:


1. _____ fruit: contains multiple ovaries (each containing a seed) but all comes from 1 flower

ex: strawberries


1. _____ fruit: contains multiple ovaries (each containing a seed) but each comes from multiple/its own flower; they all fuse

ex: pineapple

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* _____: tomato
* _____: peas in a pod
* _____: has hard pit (peach/plum/cherries)
* _____: wing forms as outer structure (maple, elms, ashes)

ovary, aggregate, multiple, berries, legumes, drupes, samaras

Pollinators and certain circumstances for germination

* Conifers dont open up until exposed to ___


* Nectar-loving bats are attracted to ____-smelling ___*/*___flowers
* ____ attracted to red/yellow flowers
* ____ attracted to ____-smelling yellow/blue/purple

fire, sweet, pale, white, birds, bees, sweet

Commercial uses for seed plants?

* Food, Poacea (cereal wheat), rice, potatoes, roses, corn, cassava


* Wood used for lumber, paper, resin, etc
* Plant fibers (cotton) used for clothes
* 25% of medicine from angiosperms
* Illegal/legal drugs

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say yes

yes

label flower accordingly

stigma, pollen, style, carpel, ovary, ovule, sepal, receptacle, stem, leaf, xylem, phloem, cambium, vascular bundle, cortex, petal, anther, filament, stamen

Angiosperm egg development (IMPORTANT)

ovary contains megaspore mother cell → meiosis → 4 megaspores → 1 survivor megaspore → 3x mitosis → 7 cells formed bc 2 fused into a single central cell , there are 3 antipodals, 2 synergids that surround the 1 egg

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say yes

yes

Angiosperm pollen development

(IMPORTANT)

anther contains pollen sack holding multiple microspore mother cells → 3x meiosis → 4 microspore pollen grains→ each one undergoes mitosis → now each pollen grain contains a generative cell + tube cell

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say yes

yes

where else is lignin present?

inside walls of xylem

why would fungi switch to sexual reproduction?

undesirable environmental conditions,

what is a land plant that does not have these traits:

* apical meristems
* alternation of generations
* walled spores in sporangia
* multicellular gametangia
* multicellular dependent embryos

charophytes

which anthocerotophyta plant does this describe?

* live with cyanobacteria
* permanently opened stomata
* “horn” shaped gametophyte

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which bryophyte plant does this describe?

* most abundant plants in arctic/ antarctic
* greatest moss diversity (bc withstands long droughts but ironically uncommon in deserts)
* prevents erosion, potting soils, burned as fuel

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hornworts, mosses,

know that this is the order

* Apical meristem → procambium -→ vascular cambium/or cork cambium