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nature–nurture issue
The controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
natural selection
The principle that inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
evolutionary psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
behavior genetics
The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
mutation
A random error in gene replication that leads to a change.
environment
Every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences of the people and things around us.
heredity
The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.
genes
The biochemical units of heredity.
genome
The complete instructions for making an organism.
identical (monozygotic) twins
Individuals developed from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
Individuals developed from separate fertilized eggs; they are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings.
interaction
The interplay when the effect of one factor depends on another factor.
epigenetics
The study of molecular mechanisms by which environments can influence genetic expression.
nervous system
The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all nerve cells.
central nervous system (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord.
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
nerves
Bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sensory organs.
sensory (afferent) neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.
motor (efferent) neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.
interneurons
Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and process information.
somatic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles.
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs.
sympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy.
parasympathetic nervous system
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
reflex
A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus.
neuron
A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.
cell body
The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center.
dendrites
A neuron's branching extensions that receive and integrate messages.
axon
The segmented neuron extension that passes messages to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
myelin sheath
A fatty tissue layer encasing the axons of some neurons that enables faster transmission speed.
glial cells (glia)
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
action potential
A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
refractory period
A brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired.
all-or-none response
A neuron's reaction of either firing or not firing.
synapse
The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the receiving neuron.
neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap between neurons.
reuptake
A neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.
endorphins
Natural neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure.
agonist
A molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action.
antagonist
A molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action.
endocrine system
The body's slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
hormones
Chemical messengers manufactured by the endocrine glands.
psychoactive drug
A chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods.
substance use disorder
A disorder characterized by continued substance use despite resulting life disruption.
depressants
Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
tolerance
The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug.
addiction
Compulsive substance use that continues despite harmful consequences.
withdrawal
The discomfort and distress following discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.
barbiturates
Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety.
opioids
Opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity and lessens pain and anxiety.
stimulants
Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
hallucinogens
Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
near-death experience
An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death.
biological psychology
The scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.
biopsychosocial approach
An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.
levels of analysis
The differing complementary views for analyzing any given phenomenon.
neuroplasticity
The brain’s ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways.
lesion
Tissue destruction; brain lesions may occur naturally, during surgery, or experimentally.
EEG (electroencephalogram)
An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface.
MEG (magnetoencephalography)
A brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's electrical activity.
CT (computed tomography) scan
A series of X-ray photographs combined into a composite representation of the brain's structure.
PET (positron emission tomography)
A technique for detecting brain activity that displays where a radioactive form of glucose goes during a task.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue.
fMRI (functional MRI)
A technique for revealing blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.
hindbrain
The part of the brain that directs essential survival functions and coordinates balance.
midbrain
The part of the brain that connects the hindbrain with the forebrain.
forebrain
The part of the brain that manages complex cognitive activities and voluntary motor activities.
brainstem
The central core of the brain responsible for automatic survival functions.
medulla
The hindbrain structure that controls heartbeat and breathing.
thalamus
The forebrain's sensory control center; it directs messages to sensory receiving areas in the cortex.
reticular formation
A nerve network that filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal.
cerebellum
The hindbrain’s structure that coordinates movement output and balance.
limbic system
A neural system associated with emotions and drives, located in the forebrain.
amygdala
Neural clusters in the limbic system linked to emotion.
hypothalamus
A limbic system structure that directs maintenance activities and helps govern the endocrine system.
hippocampus
A neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories.
cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain's cerebral hemispheres.
frontal lobes
The portion of the cerebral cortex associated with higher-order thinking and executive functioning.
parietal lobes
The portion of the cerebral cortex that receives sensory input for touch and body position.
occipital lobes
The portion of the cerebral cortex that includes areas receiving input from the visual fields.
temporal lobes
The part of the cerebral cortex that includes auditory areas for processing sounds and language.
motor cortex
Area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
somatosensory cortex
Area at the front of the parietal lobes that processes body touch and movement sensations.
association areas
Areas of the cerebral cortex involved in higher mental functions such as learning and remembering.
neurogenesis
The formation of new neurons.
corpus callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres.
split brain
A condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain’s two hemispheres.
