Stage 2 Nutrition - Topic 2 Health Promotion and Emerging Trends

diagnostic tool

a measure to help determine whether someone is at risk of a particular health condition

Anthropometry

measurements of the human body to assess size (e.g. height), shape and body composition (e.g. % body fat)

Body Mass Index (BMI)

assesses whether an adult's weight is in a healthy range for their height.

Body Mass Index = Weight (kg) ÷ Height2 (m2)

Weight-for-height tables and charts

BMI classifications for underweight to obesity can also be determined using this.

Waist circumference

can identify if someone is carrying excess body fat stored around the abdomen (visceral fat).

Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR)

used to check if someone is carrying excess body fat around the abdomen and is therefore at risk of overnutrition diseases.

Assesses whether the waist is wider than the hips (apple/android body shape), or smaller than the hips (pear/gynoid body shape).

Nutrient reference values (NRVs)

are expressed as a daily value, however patients are typically assessed over 3 or more days, collecting information about what they eat, and physical activity performed.

Blood analysis

can uncover a nutrient deficiency or excess and then diagnose any associated health risks using the patient's history and symptoms.

Educational aids

resources that provide information, guidance and support to help people make healthier food choices

Australian Dietary Guidelines (ADG)

provide dietary patterns that enable people to get enough of the essential nutrients for good health. They also aim to reduce the risk of overnutrition diseases such as obesity, CVD and Type 2 Diabetes.

Australian Dietary Guideline 1

To achieve and maintain a healthy weight, be physically active and choose amounts of nutritious food and drinks to meet your energy needs

Australian Dietary Guideline 2

Enjoy a wide variety of nutritious foods from these five food groups everyday

Australian Dietary Guideline 3

Limit intake of foods containing saturated fat, added salt, added sugars and alcohol

Australian Dietary Guideline 4

Encourage, support and promote breastfeeding

Australian Dietary Guideline 5

Care for your food; prepare and store it safely

Australian Guide to Healthy Eating (AGHE)

It summarises the guidelines visually, and splits foods into the five predominant food groups. The food groups are split based on their type and contribution of nutrients to the Australian diet, and represented as a place, in the proportions recommended for consumption each day.

Social marketing campaigns

advertisement that aim to educate individuals and communities about healthy lifestyles.

Sensory factors affecting food choices

appearance, flavour, smell, texture, sound

appearance of food

includes colour, size, shape, transparency, dullness, and gloss. Colour can indicate ripeness, strength of dilution, or the degree of cooking or reheating, influencing the evaluation of a food's desirability and acceptability

flavour of food

is a combined sense of taste, aroma, and mouthfeel. Taste is perceived by the tastebuds on the tongue and in areas of the throat, detecting five different tastes: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami.

smell of food

The odour or aroma of a product can be detected directly through the nose or by entering the mouth and flowing to the back of the throat and up into the nasal cavity. The strength of odours is related to temperature, with hot foods emitting stronger odours. Sensitivity to odours varies among individuals

texture of food

It is determined by visual perception, touch through the fingers or eating utensils, and the feeling in the mouth (mouthfeel) as detected by the teeth and nerves on the tongue.

sound of food

such as sizzling, crunching, popping, bubbling, squeaking, dripping, exploding, and crackling can communicate much about a food

Sensory evaluations

are used to invoke, measure, analyse, and interpret reactions to specific characteristics of foods perceived by the five senses.

Star profile

Tests single food product or range

Evaluates differences in similar products

Analyses specific characteristics

A star with 5 to 8 points is labelled with different sensory characteristics.

Higher numbers represent greater intensity

The results are plotted on the star profile (radar graph).

Can plot multiple to compare.

Ranking test

Quick, simple, useful

Assesses differences in preference or intensity of sensory attributes for up to 5 samples

Products are put in order of preference e.g. most to least sweet

Rating test

Rating products using 5, 7 or 9 point scale

Used by food specialists (e.g. baker) to test new products e.g. new cake using applesauce instead of butter.

Triangle test

Testers presented with three coded samples (two are identical)

Testers need to identify the odd one out by placing an X on the score card and adding any comments describing what was different

Useful for comparing brands or if a manufacturer has used a new ingredient in a recipe

Psychological factors affecting food choices

Values (cultural, ethical), beliefs, emotions, self-image, past experiences and attitudes.

Social and environmental factors affecting food choices

peer pressure, media, advertising, food regulation, food availability, food affordability and level of education.

Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ)

a government authority who developed a 'food standards code' that covers food production (agriculture/farming), food composition, food processing, labelling, safety and handling.

Physical food contamination

are foreign objects (hair, plastic, glass) found in food.

Biological food contamination

contaminants are microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi) that enter foods via poor hygiene or unsanitary food handling.

Chemical food contamination

contaminants including cleaning agents (from manufacturing process), pesticides (unwashed fruits and vegetables), heavy metals (soil and water), natural food toxins.

Favourable conditions for microbial growth

Nutrients (protein), neutral pH, temperature between 5-60 degC, oxygen and water

Food poisoning

is an illness caused by bacteria or other toxins in food, typically with vomiting and diarrhoea. Biological contamination via pathogenic bacteria is the most common cause

Botulism

caused by the bacteria C. botulinum and is very rare. This bacteria is found in soil, raw foods (seafood), honey and improperly cooked or preserved foods. Symptoms begin 12 - 36 hours after consumption.

Listeria

is caused by Listeria monocytogenes. This bacteria is found in soil, water, animals, pests, raw organic manure, pre-packaged fruit/vegetables, deli-ready meats, ready-to-eat seafood and unpasteurised dairy products.

Can take weeks/months to develop. Can lead to 'flu-like' symptoms, gastroenteritis, meningitis (brain infection) and even death in those with weaker immune systems. Can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, premature birth or very ill baby when born.

Escherichia Coli (E. coli)

is a pathogenic strain of bacteria found in the gut of warm-blooded animals, those with close contact with farm animals, undercooked beef mince, unpasteurised milk, contaminated water, lettuce/spinach, sprouts, salami and fruit juices.

Takes 2 - 8 days for symptoms to appear including diarrhoea, stomach pain and potentially damage to kidneys in immunocompromised individuals.

Salmonella

is found in the intestine of many animals, contaminated food/water, eating undercooked animal products (eggs, poultry) or contaminated ready-to-eat foods.

Takes 1 - 3 days for symptoms to appear and lasts a few days.

Food spoilage

When food and beverages are undesirable for consumption they show signs such as having an unusual texture, odour, taste, appearance.

Food processing

involves any method that turns fresh or raw agricultural products into foods suitable for consumption, cooking or storage - changing food's original form. This is done to eliminate microorganisms and to extend shelf life.

What is freezing?

A type of food preservation method used to extend the shelf life of food products by maintaining conditions that discourage or stop microorganism growth.

What temperature range should the freezer be set for optimal freezing?

Between -18˚C and -20˚C to delay enzyme activity and inhibit microorganism growth.

What happens to water molecules during freezing?

Water molecules are converted into ice, making it unavailable to microbes.

Why is following the 2/4 hour rule important with defrosted food?

To prevent microbes from multiplying again when food is in the danger zone after defrosting.

What can happen to nutrients in frozen produce stored for a long time?

Over time, some nutrients can begin to break down when frozen produce is stored for more than a year.

What is canning?

Canning is a type of heat treatment used to preserve fruits, vegetables, meat products, and processed foods by placing them in cans with liquid, removing air, and exposing them to elevated temperatures.

What is bottling?

Bottling is a type of heat treatment used to preserve foods by placing them in bottles with liquid, removing air, and exposing them to elevated temperatures.

Why are high-acid foods pressure canned at higher temperatures?

High-acid foods require pressure canning at temperatures of 121˚C for 3 to 15 minutes to ensure preservation and safety.

How does canning/bottling extend shelf life?

Canning/bottling extends shelf life by removing air to reduce oxygen available to microbes, using liquid with sugar and salt to bind water molecules, and sometimes adding acids to reduce pH and deter microbial growth.

What is pasteurization?

A type of heat treatment applied to food and beverages to kill pathogens and inactivate spoilage enzymes.

What are the specific conditions for pasteurization in Australia?

Holding time and temperature of 72˚C for 15 seconds.

How does pasteurization affect shelf life?

It increases shelf life by days or weeks.

Name some products commonly pasteurized.

Milk, eggs, fruit juices, beer, and some canned or bottled foods.

Food packaging

is a form of food processing where the food is prepared for sale by wholly or partly encasing, covering or enclosing the food in a container or wrapper. Materials used to package food are food grade (free from harmful chemicals or residues), which is mandated by FSANZ.

What are some examples of metal packaging?

Cans, alfoil, fruit juices, and sweets

What are the characteristics of metal packaging?

Inexpensive, recyclable, impermeable to light, moisture, oxygen, and microbes, does not rust

What are some limitations of metal packaging?

Cannot be reused, product is not visible, cannot be microwaved, can corrode when exposed to acidic foods

What are some examples of products commonly stored in metal (tin) packaging?

Cans, candy bars, olive oils, vegetables, meat, pet food, fruit

What are some characteristics of metal (tin) packaging?

Inexpensive, recyclable, impermeable to light, moisture, oxygen, and microbes, does not rust or corrode, does not contaminate food for a long period of time, cannot be reused, product not visible, cannot be microwaved, heavier than aluminum

What are some common items that are often packaged in plastic?

Sauces, water, cling wrap, etc.

What are some characteristics of plastic packaging?

Can be molded to any shape, easy, lightweight, inexpensive, impermeable to oxygen, moisture, and light, transparent

What are some environmental concerns associated with plastic packaging?

Produced from non-renewable resources, contributes to landfill, not always resealable, chemicals could migrate into food, heat can cause deform/melt

paper packaging

Pizza, fast food, popcorn, milk

Cheap, lightweight

Recyclable, biodegradable

Made from renewable sources

Permeable to moisture

Can be crushed from pressure

Cannot be used for freezing

Glass packaging

Jam, mustard, coffee, baby food, wine

Strong, durable

Recyclable

Chemically resistant

Transparent (visible product)

Can be resealed and reused

Impermeable to oxygen and moisture

Fragile

Allows light exposure

Production is energy and resource intensive

Heavier than alternatives

What are some examples of active packaging?

Vacuum packaging, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), oxygen absorbers, moisture scavengers, carbon dioxide emitters, ethylene scavengers

How does active packaging maintain or improve the condition of packaged food?

By manipulating the food's environment (headspace) in the packaging or the food itself

What is the purpose of oxygen absorbers in active packaging?

To eliminate and reduce unwanted oxygen, slowing microbial growth and preserving flavors and aromas

What is a limitation of vacuum packaging?

It cannot remove all air and can distort or deform the product appearance

Why may refrigeration be required when using modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)?

MAP may not slow the growth of bacteria effectively

What is a drawback of using oxygen absorbers in active packaging?

They are unable to be reused once loaded with oxygen and can only be used with dry foods

What happens when excess carbon dioxide is released with carbon dioxide emitters in active packaging?

It can change the quality of the food and the packaging

Are moisture scavengers in active packaging reusable?

No, they are single-use only

Food additives

are natural or synthetic chemicals intentionally added to processed foods to improve the overall appeal of the product. They can be added or coated over the food to improve taste, texture or appearance, allowing better quality, stability or increased shelf life.

Emulsifiers

prevent and maintain water and oil from separating into different layers e.g. mayonnaise and margarine.

Antioxidants

prevent foods from oxidising by reacting with oxygen and reducing the rate of deterioration of food (especially in foods with high fat content). This also prevents food from going rancid, which causes unpleasant flavours and odours. Antioxidants can also stop the loss of vitamins that are easily destroyed by oxygen exposure e.g. cooking oils, peanut butter.

Artificial colours

are added to restore or change the colour of foods e.g. cereals, jams.

Sweeteners

replace the sweetness normally provided by sugars in food without significantly contributing to the kilojoules available in food e.g. diet soft drinks and biscuits.

Food fortification

is a type of food processing as it changes the food from its original form. This process involves adding a micronutrient to the food in amounts above the quantity found naturally in that food or after processing.

Folate (Vitamin B9, folic acid) fortification

is added to wheat flour and used to make breads (not organic bread). This was implemented in 2009 to ensure healthy foetal development in pregnancy to prevent neural tube defects (spina bifida). Therefore, unplanned pregnancies were the target group of this mandate to reduce the prevalence of spina bifida in babies.

Thiamine (Vitamin B1) fortification

is added to wheat flour and is used to make breads (not organic bread). This was mandated in 1991 to minimise the incidence of Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, a potentially fatal neurological disorder caused by vitamin B1 deficiency.

Iodine fortification

is added to salt (producing iodised salt) used for making break (not organic and homemade bread mixes). This was implemented in 2009 to address the re-emergence of iodine deficiency (goitre) in Australia and New Zealand. The deficiency can also cause stunted growth and impaired neurological function in babies and young children, if the mothers are deficient in this mineral.

Vitamin D fortification

is added to oil spreads (margarine) and has been mandated since 1987. Vitamin D enhances calcium and phosphorus absorption in the small intestines, increasing bone strength. Vitamin D prevents rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.