CHRISTIANITY (y13) - Religious and Religious Pluralism

Define multicultural

Made up of dif cultures eg: nationalities, beliefs, values and social customs

Define migration

The movement of substantial numbers of people from one place to another

What does it mean if someone is a religious absolutist?

• They insist that there is a right and wrong view

• Their beliefs are consistent and don’t change

• You can’t say “it is always wrong to steal, sometimes” as if it is always wrong to steal it can’t be qualified without losing the word “always”

What does it mean if someone is a religious relativist?

Right and wrong depend on where you stand relative to that view

Which of the two does religion tend to be and why?

• Religion tends to be absolutist

• People are expelled for being “wrong”

• Some have died for their wrong beliefs or be tortured to believe right ones

During the 18th century what was the view of religion?

• Until then the only other religion Europe had seen was Judaism

• By 18th cent they knew more of world religions so “religion” became generic term

What happened to society in the 20th century?

• More immigration and a multicultural society began developing

• Immigrants settled in Britain bringing own cultures and religions

• 1950s Britain encouraged immigration from Caribbean due to labour shortages

What happened to those who immigrated to Britain?

Became immersed in British culture but most retained their cultural identity

What was the view of immigrants in Britain?

• Multiculturalism recognised by the 80s but some saw it as a threat to national identity

• Was a Christian country but influx of Hindus, Muslims etc made multiculturalism more visible

What was Enoch Powell’s “Rivers of Blood” speech?

• 1968

• Conservative MP spoke out opposing large scale migration into UK

• Said he feared the immigrants threatened the white population

• Despite this people recognised that those of dif cultures should be respected

How has multiculturalism affected the diversity of faiths in the UK?

• 2011 census = Christianity = 59.3%

• 2021 census = Christianity = 46.2%

• Decline in Christianity, increase in atheism and Muslims

Define religious pluralism

• Situation where people of many faiths live in the same society without conflict, respecting each others views

• Can also refer to the view that all religions are equally valid

Define a secular state

Country where the govt, legislature and society are not controlled by or dependent on the teachings of a religion

What is the UK’s legal stance on religious pluralism?

• Universal Dec of Human Rights (Article 18) says we all have the right to freedom of thought and religion

• UK signs the European Convention which includes this article

• Is included in the Human Rights Act 1998

• Therefore illegal to restrict practice of religion in Britain

• However also illegal to incite violence or hatred so if religion preaches this then it has no defence to freedom of religion

How does the Bible present contrasting views on tolerance?

• Some OT passages suggest religious intolerance is a duty for Jews eg: Exodus 23 “you must demolish them and break their sacred stones to pieces”

• However earlier passages eg: Exodus 22 suggests otherwise “Do not ill treat a foreigner living in your land”

What is the impact of religious pluralism in western secular nations?

• Can lead to multiculturalism where all are respected and celebrated

• This opposes that one is better than the other

What danger do people find with religious pluralism?

• Some argue that society can’t be held together and that it’s dangerous as society lacks cohesion

• Danger that immigrant communities become subject to discrimination

Where does multiculturalism and religion clash?

• Multiculturalism assumes no culture can claim to be better than another but religion based on conviction that it offers best form of life

• There is multicultural temptation not to say their beliefs are better but the religious temptation to say they are

Where does multiculturalism and rel. plur. overlap?

• Many religions arise within particular cultures so hard to differentiate which practices are religious or cultural

• Some religions encapsulate multiple cultures

How has religious pluralism impacted Christian thought?

• Christians need to use reason to decide on most important religious claims and decide which are most reasonable to have a +’ve attitude towards others

• However this assumes theists accept that reason can be used to judge faith

• While religion has been subject to reason eg: Aquinas’ NML some say this dilutes Biblical belief

• Eg: not reasonable to believe in Jesus’ resurrection but is a foundational truth

• Therefore there is a fine line between being inclusive and rejecting core claims of Christianity

What problem arises in regards to absolute beliefs?

• We have a need for certainty and religion appeals to this

• Explains the rise in fundamentalism who have have absolute certainty of beliefs and don’t care for complexities

• This conviction leads to extreme behaviour eg: suicide bombers

How do people deal with conflicting claims about life after death?

• Each religion is self-validating so only possible to consider competing claims on basis of reason and evidence

• However assumes reason prioritised over faith which theist may not accept

How are religions differentiated?

• It is impossible for someone to be member of both

• Supported by some religions producing creeds = list of key beliefs defining who is in and who isn’t

Define exclusivism

View that one religion is the only true one and that the other religions are wrong

Define inclusivism

• View that although only one religion is true, other religions may show aspects of the one true religion

• Most inclusivists still claim their religion is unique

Give an example of an exclusivist religion

• Evangelical Christians

• They believe goal of human life is salvation from sin and going to heaven

• This is only possible through personal relationship with Jesus so only those that have that relationship can be saved

What is the alternative to the Evangelical view?

• God may choose to forgive sins of those who haven’t committed themselves to Jesus if they lived good lives

• Means people of other faiths can be saved too!

• This is inclusivism

Give an example of an inclusivist religion?

• Catholic Church said that other religions “reflect a ray of the Truth that illuminates everyone”

• Shows that although they believe their religion teaches more truth than others, there’s some truth in others

What are the two types of inclusivism?

1. Closed inclusivism = one specific religion has all truth but others have some of it too

2. Open inclusivism = one specific religion has best grasp of truth but not all of the truth so it can learn some truth from teachings of other religions

What does John 14:6 say?

“No one comes to the father except through me” (Jesus)

How does John 14:6 show an exclusivist view?

• Says explicitly that faith in christ is needed for salvation

• There are only two exceptions: children dying before old enough to know christ and someone who never encountered christ

• However norm for biblical fundamentalists is that God will condemn all who don’t commit to Christ

• This makes evangelism a priority as they feel the need to convert others to save them

• Those who don’t see bible as God’s literal words see no need for this = more inclusivist view

Give another Bible verse that support exclusivism

“For everyone who calls upon the name of the Lord will be saved” (Romans 10:13)

What do Catholics and Evangelicals teach?

• Catholics believe there is no salvation outside the church

• Has been modified since

• For Christians, exclusivism is view that salvation is judged in terms of revelation and relationship with JC

• Question is must this be explicit or implicit?

What are the critcisms of exclusivism?

• If God can do anything surely he can work through all religions or none at all

• It limits God’s potential for forgiveness

• Relies on literal interpretation of Bible but we know it’s been edited and is fallible

• Standard arg for it is circular as it can’t provide independent justification

Where is there evidence that God plans for the salvation of everyone?

• Acts 10 Peter says “I now realise how true it is that God does not show favouritism”

• Acts 14 Paul says “In the past, he let all nations go their own way..”

• Shows God showing kindness to all not just Christians

• COULD support inclusivist view however most of NT supports exclusivism/ closed inclusivism

How else is inclusivism justified in the Bible?

• Romans 2:9-11 “There will be…glory, honour and peace for everyone that does good”

• Shows judgement is based on acts

• Or shows that nothing can save us other than God’s grace

What is Barthes’ view?

• Barthes takes this view saying it places both Christians and Non-Christians in same position

• Saw belief in Christ as something that abolishes all forms of religion

• Placed all religions under judgement of JC

• Emphasised absolute sovereignty of God and inefficacy of all religion

Who was Karl Rahner?

• German priest and theologian

• Writings considers suspect by RC authorities but from 1962 was influential in way catholic thinking developed during/ after 2nd vatican council

Define an Anonymous Christian

A view proposed by Rahner that people who aren’t christian in practice or belief are nonetheless able to experience grace and salvation

What issue does Rahner’s view solve?

• Solves problem of people that don’t know of Christianity and Jesus as anyone who does good can go to heaven

• Says that w out consciously becoming Christian, everyone encounters God’s grace and saving purpose

• Power of God is able to overcome “limited stupidity and evil-mindedness of men”

• Implies salvation only achieved through WORKS

• Also removes conflict between religions as all have the same aim

What issues does Rahner’s view present?

• Criticised by those who take fundamentalist position but also by those who see his view as patronising to other faiths

• Hick argues it’s insulting to people born into families of other faiths as it suggests that faith they follow is mistaken/ faulty

• Hick calls the notion of “anonymous Christians” paternalistic

Define toleration

Allowing something even if you disagree - implies negative judgement on what is tolerated

Define ecumenism

Initiatives to develop relationships between Christian churches to promote Christian unity

What is a see?

A diocese

Briefly summarise the historical background of how different denominations view each other

• 4th cent = 5 main centres of the Church

• Christianity developed in each place and disputed over doctrine

• 312 CE Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity, made it official religion of the Empire and Nicene Creed agreed on to attempt reaching uniformity

• From then those who disagreed with it were seen as heretical

What was the Great Schism of 1054?

• Was a result of disputes regarding doctrine, practice and organisation eg wording of the creed

• Bishop of Rome claimed to be head of the whole church

• At same time, Patriarch (bishop) of Constantinople didn’t recognise Bishop of Rome’s demands and vice versa

• they began excommunicating each other’s followers which lead to the formal split

• Western church became Catholic and Eastern was Orthodox

What happened from the 16th cent ?

• Reformation split Western Christianity into cath and prot who persecuted each other

• Further splits later into methodist, baptist etc

• Today there are 3 main divisions: Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox

• There are over 300 denominations within these divisions

What are the 6 reasons for division in Christianity?

1. Issues of authority

2. Questions of tradition/ practices

3. Questions of church governance and organisatin

4. Interpretations of scripture

5. Style of worship

6. The Creeds

What are the core Catholic beliefs/ practices that influence their views on other denominations?

• Apostolic Succession - authority is passed down from ordination of one priest to the next showing continuity

• Continuity is also shown in how people hold beliefs from ancient creeds and use rituals from the early church eg: Sacraments like Baptism and Holy Communion

• Continuity guarantees authority and if the Church is the body of Christ then there’s no scope for division

How do Catholics view other denominations/ religions?

• You either belong to the Church or not

• Those who separate from catholic church may have admirable qualities but cut off from authentic Christianity

• Liberal Catholics are closed inclusivists - other denoms reflect aspects of Christianity but lack continuity and authority of Catholicism

• Non Catholics are seen as “separated brethren”

What are the core Evangelical Protestant beliefs/ practices that influence their views on other denominations?

• Luther taught we can only be saved by God’s grace (sola gratia) and faith (sola fide)

• All we need to know can be found in scripture (sola scriptura), we can communicate with God without a priest

• Belive in “priesthood of all believers”

• Reformation taught individuals to read/ understand scripture for themselves

• Faith is a personal commitment to God informed by scripture, more important than works

How do Protestant Evangelicals view those of other denominations/ religions?

• Those who don’t commit remain outside of the church as they can’t achieve salvation

• They have an exclusivist view

• They judge other Christians on whether they commit to Christ

• They see churches teaching specific forms of worship as failing to follow scripture

• They prefer to be self-governed communities, following examples of the Early Church

• View hierarchy in the Church (like cath + CoE) as an error

What is the background to the views of the Church of England?

• CoE separated from Pope’s authority in 1530’s but remained Catholic in ideology

• By 1559 it was “Catholic and reformed”

• Over time it’s held a variety of views

How does the CoE view other denominations/ religions?

• Official position is non-commital

• They recognise other churches and their dif and because of diversity in their own church they understand no church is perfect

• This understanding led to many formal agreements with other Churches

• Would be inaccurate to define the view of CoE as one but could be called inclusivist

Give an example of the CoE being divided

• Divided over ordaining women

• Works closely with RC church which excludes women and with Methodist church which accepts it

What are the origins of ecumenism?

• Originated in early 20th cent, seen in the work of the World Council of Churches

• The council’s work is practical not theological

• RC church not a member but does engage in formal conversation with other churches

• These conversations focus on understanding theological + doctrinal issues which Church has historically disagreed on

What is Hick’s stance on pluralism?

• Is a universalist - believes God’s salvation is available to all whatever their religion

• Says faith you’re born into is random, we must reject old theology that only Christianity is right

• Thus all beliefs, religious or not, are right and so all can go to heaven

How does Hick distinguish between the two claims made by religion?

• Claims related to historical facts ie: Jesus’ death which can be evidenced

• Trans-historical qs ie: what happens after we die, where there is no evidence for this so invites many answers

For Hick, what is the crucial feature of all religions?

• the “transformation of human existence from self-centredness to Reality-centred-ness”

• Hick sees religion about self-transformation rather than about historical or other truth claims

• Therefore claims that the incompatibilities between religions are not of real religious significance

Who criticised Hick’s views?

• Paul Griffiths

• He asks how we deal with religious groups that support extreme actions eg: murder and suicide

• Says its unrealistic to say the difs between some groups and mainstream religion are superficial

What else challenges Hick?

• Religious groups whose practices go against societal norm

• eg: Jehova’s Witnesses reject blood transfusions even if life or death and some Mormons engage in polygamy

• These transgress western society’s rules

• This makes it difficult to make religiously neutral legislation that can acommodate all

How does Hick respond to these challenges?

• As he doesn’t believe in hell, says if God was loving there would be more opportunities to good beyond this life and then be saved

• Suggests other lives after death

• Can be compared to cath idea of purgatory which is place for “friends of God who still need purification” to get to heaven

• Hick differs from this, says all who die can be purified and focuses on future lives than a single state after death

How do Hick’s views challenge the Bible?

• Contradicts Parable of the Sheep and the Goat where goats condemned to eternal punishment

• This is usually taken to mean some aren’t saved but Hick rejects this

• Says it wasn’t literal

How does Hick use the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats to support inclusivism?

• Judgement is not based on faith in Christ but on acts

• Therefore final judgement is based on secular behaviour not religious commtiment

• Shows biblical basis for universalism as judgement completely ignores religious affoliation

• However is not conclusive for inclusivism as there’s still clear indication that those who are ill-behaved won’t be saved

How has Hick been received?

• If Hick’s ideas were accepted this could help build relations between denominations and religions as they all have the same aim of self-transformation

• However his views aren’t widely accepted

• His ideas of lives beyond death challenge Christian belief in one life then death and even lib Christians see universalism as separate from Christianity

How do Protestants and Catholics view Hick?

• Protestants evangelicals don’t accept his ideas

• RC see him as mistaken for dismissing importance of specific beliefs and practices

Who does Hick’s writing appeal most to?

Academics, theologians, not the average church-goer

How do Islam and Judaism view Hick?

• These religions depend on specific truth claims so his idea that religions depend on self-transformation is wrong

• His idea of the “ultimately Real” doesn’t do justice to reality of Jewish and Muslim God

• For all Abrahamic religions his universalism challenges their claims to be the one truth faith

How do Hinduism and Buddhism view Hick?

• More inclusive

• Their concept of the ultimately Real is closer to Hick’s

• Only Sikh’s would agree with Hick fully

What is the atheist response to Hick?

• Dawkins says idea of God is redundant and self-transformation is an entirely human process

• Hick’s theodicy shows how explaining the world religiously over complicates it

• The simplest view is God doesn’t exist and religion is worthless

How impactful are Hick’s views on ecumenism?

• Hick’s views have had little impact on formal relationships between faiths/ denominations

• However for some individuals his ideas help reconcile dif teachings of religion with inner sense of one-ness of human religious understanding

What is the status of freedom of religious expression in the UK?

• Dec of HR saus everyone has right to freedom of opinion and expression

• Question is if its okay to limit religious expression

• Some things like forced marriages/ FGM aren’t legal so situations where social good overrides freedom of expression

• While people can be protected from violence, harder to protect from being offended as its subjective

• In Britain after Equality Act 2010 there’s lots of protection from discrimintation on grounds of religion and belief = rel freedom is protected

What are the two Christian responses to issues of freedom of religious expression in society?

1. Evangelical christians who emphasise importance of personal commitment to christ

2. Other Christians may see themselves as called to work for the transformation of society, promote civic order rather than total free expression

Expand on the first Christian response

• Will prefer a separation of Church and State

• Wish for complete freedom of religious expression (often only for their religion)

• May claim this freedom to oppose societal actions contrary to their faith eg abortion

• Their views are Biblically based - John 18:36 says “Christ’s kingdom is not of this world” so secular rules have no relevance to salvation

• Salvation only found through God’s grace

• Thus personal choice is key, must be free to express it

• Govt/ law has no part in process of salvation

Expand on the 2nd Christian response

• See Christian responsibility to promote Christian values in society to benefit all

• Most Christians think that freedom to practice ant religion or not is an essential feature of society - this freedom is needed for genuine moral choice

• From both a catholic and evan. Prot perspective, freedom from imposed religious conformity is needed for morality and a personal commitment to Christ

• Any limit on religious expression prevents them from being fully human as can’t develop personal relationship with Christ

How do we balance legislation and freedom of expression?

• Must consider if certain actions are central to practice of Christian faith or not

• In example of B&B couple who denied gay couple a room, law favours gay couple but challenges couple’s religious beliefs

What is the problem with this balance?

• Deciding what is essential to faith and what isn’t

• eg: wearing a cross isn’t essential so if told to remove it’s not a problem but meeting in Church is essential so a ban on that is problematic