BSC1085C Exam 1

Anatomy

The study of body structure

Physiology

The study of body function

Cytology

study of cells

Histology

study of tissues

Pathology

study of disease

Gross Anatomy

Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

Regional Anatomy

Studied area by area

Systemic Anatomy

Studied system by system

Surface Anatomy

external form used to visualize deeper structures

Cell Physiology

Examines processes in cells

Systemic Physiology

Functions of organ systems

Chemical Level

interaction of atoms and molecules

Cell Level

structural and functional unit of living organisms.

Combinations of molecules for structures called organelles that carry out specific functions.

Tissue Level

groups of similar cells and the materials surrounding them.

Tissue types

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

Organ Level

Two or more tissues functioning together

Organ System

group of organs functioning together

Organism Level

Any living thing

Characteristics of Life

organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, reproduction

Organization

Condition in which there are specific interrelationships and functions among the parts of an organism

Metabolism

the ability to used energy to perform vital functions; all chemical reactions of the body

Responsiveness

ability to sense changes in the interior and exterior environment and adjust; cell-to-cell communication is necessary

Growth

Increase in size and/or number of cells

Development

Changes in an organism over time

Differentiation

Change from general to specific

Morphogenesis

Change in shape of tissues, organs, or the entire organism

Reproduction

Formation of new cells or new organisms for growth and development; allows organisms to pass on their genes to their offspring

Integumentary System

Provides protection, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands

skeletal system

Provides protection and support, allows body movements, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat. Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments, and joints

Muscular System

Produces body movements, maintains posture, and produces body heat. Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons

nervous system

A major regulatory system that detects sensations and controls movements, physiological processes, and intellectual functions. Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors

Endocrine System

A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many other functions. Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secrete hormones

Cardiovascular System

Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the immune response and the regulation of body temperature. Consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood

Lymphatic System

Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid balance, and absorbs fats from the digestive tract. Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs

Respiratory System

Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and regulates blood pH. Consists of the lungs and respiratory passages

Digestive System

Performs the mechanical and chemical processes of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of wastes. Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs

Urinary System

Removes waste products from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, and ducts that carry urine

Female Reproductive System

Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization and fetal development; produces milk for the newborn; produces hormones that influence sexual function and behaviors. Consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, and associated structures

Male Reproductive System

Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female and produces hormones that influence sexual functions and behaviors. Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts, and penis

Homeostasis

maintenance of relatively constant internal environment within the body.

Values of variables (conditions) fluctuate around the setpoint (ideal normal value) to establish a normal range of values

Feedback Loops

Homeostasis is regulated by feedback loops that allow for a process to be adjusted by the outcome.

Positive and Negative Feedback

Receptor

monitors the value of some variable by detecting a stimulus (a change in the variable)

Control Center

establishes the set point and receives input from the receptor

Effector

generates the response which can change the value of the variable

Negative Feedback

Regulates most systems in the body.

Counteracts a change in variable (for example, body temperature) by decreasing the change to help maintain homeostasis by returning to the set point

Positive Feedback

When a deviation occurs, the response is to make the deviation greater.

• Unusual in normal, healthy individuals, leads away from homeostasis and can result in death.

• Examples of normal positive feedback: childbirth, lactation, blood clotting.

• Example of harmful positive feedback: after hemorrhage, blood pressure drops and the heart's ability to pump blood decreases.

• Effectors continue the response beyond the set point until the original stimulus is removed

Positive Feedback in Childbirth

1. head of fetus pushes against cervix

2. nerve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain

3. brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin

4. oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and pushes fetus toward cervix

Positive Feedback in Blood Clotting

1. Broken blood vessel.

2A. Platelets bind to blood vessel.

2B. Binding of platelets leads to activation of platelets.

3. Platelets release substances which attract more platelets.

4. Platelets attract more platelets.

5. Platelets plug up the hole.

Anatomical Position

To stand erect with arms at the sides and palms of the hands turned forward

Supine Body Position

lying face upward

Prone Body Position

lying face downward

Superior (Cephalic)

toward the head

Inferior (Caudal)

away from the head

Medial

toward the midline

Lateral

away from the midline

Proximal

Nearer to the trunk of the body

Distal

Farther from the trunk of the body

Superficial

near the surface

Deep

Away from the body surface; more internal

Anterior (ventral)

toward the front

Posterior (dorsal)

toward the back

sagittal plane

divides body into left and right

median plane

divides the body into equal left and right halves down the midline

frontal (coronal) plane

divides the body into anterior and posterior sections

transverse (horizontal) plane

divides the body into superior and inferior sections

Oblique Plane

passes through the body at an angle

Longitudinal Plane through an organ

cut along the length of an organ

Transverse (cross) Plane through an organ

cut at right angle to length of the organ

Oblique Plane through an organ

cut at any but a right angle

cranial cavity (dorsal)

houses the brain

Vertebral Canal (dorsal)

houses the spinal cord

Thoracic Cavity

Further Divided into Pleural Cavities.

Each enclosing a lung, and a medial Mediastinum.

Contains heart, some major blood vessels, thymus, trachea, esophagus

Abdominopelvic Cavity

consists of the abdominal and pelvic cavities

abdominal cavity

Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver, and other organs

Pelvic Cavity

Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

Serous Membranes

Cover the organs of body cavities and line the cavity

Visceral Membrane

the layer of a serous membrane that is in contact with an organ

Parietal Membrane

membrane that lines the wall of a cavity

pericardium membrane

surrounds the heart; contains pericardial fluid

Pleura membrane

surrounds the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity; contains pleural fluid

peritoneum membrane

Surrounds many abdominal organs and lines the abdominopelvic cavity; contains peritoneal fluid

mesentery (peritoneal fold)

holds small intestine to posterior abdominopelvic wall; provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach the digestive organs

retroperitoneal organs

Behind the peritoneum; Kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands, part of pancreas, part of large intestine, and urinary bladder

Matter

Anything that has mass and takes up space

Mass

the amount of matter in an object (Kg)

Weight

A measure of the gravitational force exerted on an object.

Element

the simplest type of matter with unique chemical properties; composed of atoms of only one kind

Atom

Smallest particle of an element that has chemical characteristics of that element

Neutrons

no electrical charge

Protons

One positive charge

Electrons

One negative charge

Nucleus

Formed by protons and neutrons

Electron cloud

a region around the nucleus of an atom where electrons are likely to be found

Atomic Number

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

Mass Number

Number of Protons plus number of neutrons

Isotopes

Two or more forms of same element with same number of Protons and Electrons but different neutron number. THey have the same Atomic Number but different Mass Numbers

Atomic Mass

Average mass of naturally occurring isotopes

Avogadro's Number

6.022 x 10^23

Molar Mass

the mass of one mole of a substance in grams, which is equal to its atomic mass units

Chemical Bonds

formed when electrons in the outermost energy level (valence shell) are either shared with or transferred to another atom